Implementation of Neo-Confucianism during Tokugawa period had practical meaning. It was chosen as a mean to strengthen governmental power and to end up internal wars. The choice of Neo-Confucianism can be also explained by economic necessity. In China Neo-Confucianism appeared during Sung Period, which lasted from 1130 to 1200. Chu Hsi transformed the principles of Confucian teaching presenting its new version as Neo Confucianism. Several centuries later Tokugawa turned to Chinese experience and adopted the teaching of Neo-Confucianism for the needs of his country.
Tokugawa came to power during the time when Japan was tired to peaces by wars. His main concern was establishing peace in the country and he turned to Chinese Confucianism as a way to renew this peace. In Tokugawa shogunate was implemented bakuhan system of government. Military government reserved the right to inspect 250 autonomous territories, which composed about three-fourths of Japanese territory. In order to inspect all these autonomous territories Tokugawa shogunate established bureaucratic system copied form the Chinese imperial model. Building his bureaucratic system Tokugawa turned to Confucianism as one of the means to strengthen state power. Tokugawa has chosen right strategy and his bureaucratic model enforced by the teaching of Neo-Confucianism brought 260 years of peace to the country. [1]
Neo-Confucianism is based on the relationship of justice between benevolent governor and obedient subordinate. Japanese Neo-Confucianism was based on four main principles of fundamental rationalism, essential humanism, historicism and ethnocentrism. Fundamental rationalism turned to objective reason as a main source of cognition. It also underlined the necessity of learning natural and human laws. Here accent was placed to material existence and human relations. Humanism places accent on human in contrast to supernatural world. Special attention here is paid to strict social order as a source of wellness of the state and each separate individual. Neo-Confucianism rejects Buddhism and Taoism as religions, which lead to the escape from reality. Accent on the study of the past is another peculiar feature of Neo-Confucianism . Looking for the way to develop Japanese identity, Japanese scholars used Japanese history. The principle of Ethnocentrism in Japan was realized as obedience to the emperor and closed social structure hostile to everything foreign.
Fujiwara Seika, a devoted student of Chinese philosophy and poetry, had a great influence on the Tokugawa’s interest to Neo- Confucianism. When Seika met Tokugawa for the first time Tokugawa was not the head of shogunate yet, but Seika’s ideas has so great influence on Tokugawa that he turned to them as soon as he came to power. When Seika talked to Tokugawa Iesyasu about Neo-Confucianism he spoke primary about benefits this system could have given for the development of trade and commerce. But as states Milton Meyer “This is an odd twist in the history of Confucianism, for Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism are deeply hostile to trade and commerce and instead value agriculture. In Confucian and Neo-Confucian thought, trade and commerce resulted in inequitable distribution of goods to the detriment of the majority of the population.” [2] Fujiwara Seika became one of the main assistants and promoters of Tokugawa’s ideas concerning Neo-Confucianism.
Hayashi Razan became the founder of Neo-Confucian philosophical system in Tokugawa court. Hayashi dynasty made a great input in adapting Chinese Neo-Confucianism for the needs of Japan. In contrast to Fujiwara Seika, who was centred rather on the economic side of Neo-Confucianism , Hayashi made an accent of the philosophical side of this teaching. He brought philosophy of Neo-Confucianism to Japanese government. It was Razan who introduced the concept of shi, which could be translated as gentlemen or noble man. As Muller defines shi is “spiritual/moral development, as well as academic and martial cultivation which is clearly above that of the average person.” [3] In Japan the notion of shi united both, warrior and man of science.
Stressing the necessity to know the principles, which stand behind things, led to the development of empirical science. This science centred on the study of material world and human beings. These changes helped Japan to assimilate the principles of Western science, which later became one of the reasons of rapid technological development. Another practical implementation of Chinese Neo-Confucianism was expressed in the big interested to the history of the country. During this time detailed chronicles of historical events appeared. Implementation of Neo-Confucianism stressed the necessity to loyalty and obligations, which became main principles of relations between government and autonomous territories.
Bushido became one of the main ways in which Confucianism was expressed in Japan. The term bushido stands for “the way of warrior” and this set of rules was introduced by Yamaga Soko. Yamago Soko was a ronin, a samurai without a lord. Peace established during the Tokugaws period deprived samurais of their usual occupation – fighting, and they had to look for the new ways to occupy themselves. [4] From the other side due to the efforts to keep peace the class warriors became a privileged and closed class. This way shogunate tried to regulate the number of warriors and thus limit lords’ ability to recruit warriors. These two factors lead to the change in the status of samurais. Yamaga started this difficult task to find new purpose for the actions of samurais. Yamaga defined samurais as privileged class, which should have served as a model for the rest of the society. Privileged status gave samurais new duties as well. Now they had not only to understand the essence of moral and ethical behaviour but also to become an example of this behaviour for the rest of the society.
These two developments–the creation of warriors as an exclusive and privileged class and the lack of any productive labour for these warriors to do led to a redefinition of the samurais and their purpose, their character, and their ethical standards. Yamaga gave samurais the role of political and intellectual leaders. He hoped that “The samurai would serve as a model of cultural, moral, and intellectual development; in particular, the samurai would exemplify a devotion to duties (giri ) and unswerving loyalty. The moral life of the samurai would centre around the obligations he has willingly agreed to meet for his lord; his life would be one of temperance, self-sacrifice, high discipline, and fearlessness, particularly fearlessness in the face of death. In addition to these qualities, the samurai would cultivate intellectual, cultural, and political arts.” [5] The rise of samurai had consequences, neither Yamaga nor Tokugawa could have imagined. This new well-educated, politically active class of warriors became the cause of fall of Tokugawa bakufu in the end of the nineteenth century. Samurais introduced their new model of governmental power headed by the emperor. All these changes were initialized by Yamaga Soko by his code of samurai behaviour called bushido. As Tomikura comments on the applying of this principle: “All this took place, however, within the framework of a partitioned society and with the aim of fitting people for work in their particular social position. Thus the Confucianism that reached the masses was in the last analysis an establishment doctrine. Whether people received instruction as a pastime or as a means of education and moral improvement, they were taught, in effect, to stay in their place and find satisfaction in it” [6]
Kaibara Ekken made a great contribution to the establishing of Neo-Confucianism in Japan. First of all he proposed systematic and detailed study of nature, which became the basement of Japanese empirical study. Second great contribution made by Kaibara Ekken became the translation of many Confucian and Neo-Confucian texts into Japanese language. These gave ordinary people an opportunity to understand these complicated teachings. Some specialists state that the role of Kaibara Ekken for the development of Japanese science can be equalled to the role of pre-Enlightenment scientists in Europe.
Neo-Confucianism had influence not only on the structure of government. It had major impact on the development of art and science. Neo-Confucianism gave impulse to the development of human and rational sciences. It also had major impact on the economics of the country. As mentioned before Neo-Confucianism was brought to Japan partially because of economic considerations. Here Japan went further than China, a country from where Neo-Confucianism was borrowed. The science of economics appeared and developed in Japan practically during the same period when it was established in Europe. Kaiho Seiryo, a person who established economical science in Japan is often compared to Adam Smith who became the founder of European economic science. Kaiho’s economical ideas are based on Neo-Confucianism. He believed that economy should have been regulated by the government. He insisted on the governmental control over non-productive classes, such as writers, priests and medical workers. ”In this, we have one of the first theories of the nature of a “leisure class,” though the idea originates with the Chinese Legalists of the second century B.C., who felt that all unproductive classes should be entirely eliminated.” [7] Similar ideas can be found in Smith’s economical theory. Same ideas are often used in different European economic theories. Applying the principles of Neo-Confucianism Kaiho rejected the idea that individuals, who care for their own interests, could have sustained a successful society. He believed in the necessity of strict regulations from the side of the government. Same as Smith, Kaiho believed that production and distribution of good followed natural laws. Kaiho believed that it was Confucian moral law, which regulated both, earth and heaven. So, production and distribution of goods, same and mercantile activity and labour division was regulated by heaven law. This way, “The realization of rice from the rice fields is no different from the realization of profit from gold. The realization of timber from mountain land, the realization of fish and salt from the sea, and the realization of profit from gold and rice are the natural principle of heaven and earth. [8] Heaven law, which regulates everything in earth and heaven got the name “li”. It reflected the universal principle of Neo-Confucianism, which regulated all social events.
Neo-Confucianism became an official religion of Japan in the end of the eighteenth century. This was proved by the Kansei Edict, issued in 1970. This addict prohibited any religions, which contradicted the principals of Neo-Confucianism. [9 ] Buddhism experienced a decline during this period. Japanese authorities made a fierce resistance to Christianity because it contradicted all Japanese norms and traditions. Monotheism, one of the core conceptions of Christianity did not fit in Japan, where traditionally existed many gods. In addition, Japanese government treated Christian missionaries like a threat to established governmental order and carriers of hostile ideology. All there reason taken together also contributed to the widespread of Neo-Confucianism in Japan. After careful consideration Tokugawa turned to Confucianism as to the power, which was able to bring peace and order to his country.
Neo-Confucianism stressed the importance of moral obedience to the authority and good education. Neo-Confucianism also declared the necessity of hierarchal order in society and government. Morality was widespread not only on social life. Economy was also regulated by moral regulation of Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism, which derived from Confucianism, paid a lot of attention to the economic development of rural area. Strict regulations gave detailed depictions of peasant’s life. Their main function was to produce as much food as possible in order to supply towns. Hierarchical state order copied hierarchical order of the family, where everyone was obedient to patriarch. Strict governmental order strengthened Japan. As soon as internal conflicts were stopped it became able to confront invasions. [10] Under such conditions Japan experienced a quick economic growth. Despite Neo-Confucianism made no accent on economical development, Japanese interpolation of this teaching made it suitable for economic needs of the country. As states Milton Meyer in his Japan: a Concise History, “Although Confucianists attacked merchants, the economic power of merchants was entrenched. A departments store was opened in 1683. More food and prosperity allowed growth in population. Japan’s population was to double within a century.. And merchant values, such as thrift and prudence in all things, mixed with Confucianism’s regard for order. Japan had already begun its journey toward one of the world’s more productive economies and more densely populated lands.” [11]
Interpretation of parent-child relationship in Japan differed from the concepts introduced in Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism in Japan had practical application and that is why obedience to lord was estimated higher than obedience to parents. As van Wolferen states, “Devotion to one’s lord, teacher or other superior was taught to be the same as love for one’s parents. One should unquestioningly obey and love one’s higher parents over the will and needs of their biological parents.” [12] This accent was made in order to make hierarchical relations stronger and fix governmental power. The system of rites, very important part of Chinese Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism also experienced transformation. Very often the concept of ri, which meant “ritual” was changed to rei, which was translated like “rites.” As states Tomikura, “An increased focus on ritualism, together with the upholding of the tao (Japanese to, do, michi) inspired mystic discipline in several preexisting art forms, religious practices and codes of behavior: bushido (the way of the warrior), shod (the way of writing), kad (the way of flower arranging), sad (the way of tea), shint (the way of the gods) and so on.” [13]
All these actions were directed in order to strengthen governmental structure of Japan, making it strong economical and political unit. All effort was directed to strengthen the power of the emperor and end wars inside the country. Emperor was introduced like the father of the country. Foreigners were treated like enemies, who threaten the peace of the country because they did not fit any level of hierarchy. Neo-Confucianism perfectly reflected the needs of Japan during Tokugawa period and that is why it was chosen as leading religious and philosophical system during those times.
Endnotes
1. Maruyama, Masao, Studies in the Intellectual History of Tokugawa Japan , translated by Mikiso Hane, University of Tokyo Press, 1974
2. Meyer W. Milton Japan: a Concise History, Third Edition, by, Rowan and Littlefield Publishers, Inc 1993, p. 112
3. Muller, Charles. (n.d.) (Trans.). The Analects of Confucius. Retrieved Jan.15, 2005, from
http://www.hm.tyg.jp/acmuller/contao/analects.html#div-1
4. Maruyama, Masao, Studies in the Intellectual History of Tokugawa Japan , translated by Mikiso Hane, University of Tokyo Press, 1974
5. Abe, Yoshio.(1970) “Development of Neo-Confucianism in Japan, Korea, and China.” Acta Asiatica 19 ,1970, p. 16-39.
6. Tomikura, M. (1981) Confucianism. in Hori, et al. (eds). p. 117
7. Chan, Wing-tsit, (1967). ed. Reflections on Things at Hand. The Neo-Confucian Anthology Compiled by Chu Hsi and Lu Tsu-ch’ien.New York: Columbia University Press, p. 78
8. Sources of Japanese Tradition , ed. Ryusaku Tsunoda, Wm. Theodore de Bary, Donald Keene. New York: Columbia University Press, 1958, p. 491
9. Chan, Wing-tsit (1967) ed. Reflections on Things at Hand. The Neo-Confucian Anthology Compiled by Chu Hsi and Lu Tsu-ch’ien.New York: Columbia University Press.
10. Maruyama, Masao (1974) Studies in the Intellectual History of Tokugawa Japan , translated by Mikiso Hane, University of Tokyo Press.
11. Meyer W. Milton (1993 )Japan: a Concise History, Third Edition, by, Rowan and Littlefield Publishers, Inc
12. van Wolferen, K. (1989). The Enigma of Japanese Power: People and Politics in a Stateless Nation. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, p.168
13. Sources of Japanese Tradition , ed. Ryusaku Tsunoda, Wm. Theodore de Bary, Donald Keene (New York: Columbia University Press, 1958), p. 493
Sources
Maruyama, Masao (1974) Studies in the Intellectual History of Tokugawa Japan ,translated by Mikiso Hane, University of Tokyo Press.
Sources of Japanese Tradition (1958), ed. Ryusaku Tsunoda, Wm. Theodore de Bary, Donald Keene ,New York: Columbia University Press.
The Cambridge History of Japan, (1991), Volume 4, “Early Modern Japan,” ed. John Whitney Hall, Cambridge University Press.
Chan, Wing-tsit, (1986) trans., ed. Neo-Confucian Terms Explained.New York: Columbia University Press.
Muller, A. Charles (1993). “Hamhŏ Kihwa: A Study of his Major Works.” SUNY, Stony Brook .
Chung-Ying Cheng. (1991)New Dimensions of Confucian and Neo-Confucian Philosophy Suny Series in Philosophy
Muller, Charles. (n.d.) (Trans.). The Analects of Confucius. Retrieved Jan.15, 2005, from http://www.hm.tyg.jp/acmuller/contao/analects.html#div-1
Nosco. Peter (1997). Confucianism and Tokugawa Culture University of Hawaii Press,
De Bary, Wm. Theodore. (1980). “Neo-Confucianism as the Common Culture of East Asia.” In Che-2 hoe tongyang munhwa kukche haksul hoeui nonmunjip: Chu Cha-hak kwa Hanguk yuhak. Seoul: Songgyungwan taehakkyo taedong munhwa yonguwon.
