In ancient poetry, gods were portrayed as anthropomorphic deities, making them no less detailed and individual than the people in the poem. Early epic was considered history but was often adorned by mythological elements. In Virgil’s Aeneid, these gods functioned as literary vehicles and characters that added a fantastical and mythical element to the story. The mortal Trojans are followed through their journey from war to peace while attempting to overcome supernatural obstacles along the way. This world is one where mortals and supernatural beings not only coexist but also interweave with each other.
Before discussing religion in the Aeneid Book 3, it is important to understand the religious beliefs of the ancient world and how they fit into the supernatural ideas presented in the epic. The Graeco-Roman gods were involved in every aspect of life, from Helios directing his golden chariot to make the sun rise to Nymphs believed to inhabit trees and streams. However, these beliefs were not uniform.
In Augustan society, it was common to believe in only certain parts of a diverse religious doctrine or to favor some facets over others. As a result, it is impossible to speculate on the form of religion that the average educated Augustan would have believed in, let alone what Virgil himself believed. Camps’ conclusion is somewhat unsupported, suggesting that Virgil and his educated contemporaries may have believed in multiple powers but had little faith in the names and characteristics of the traditional anthropomorphic pantheon.
Clark heavily conjectures about Virgil’s beliefs. He makes a significant point that Virgil’s mind was fashioned in a world made fluid by the sceptics.” Philosophical thinkers like Plato and literary figures such as Euripides had undoubtedly changed how the world viewed religion. Even if they believed in the Homeric plurality of powers, they certainly cannot have believed that they were worthy of such whole-hearted reverence. In the Aeneid, Romans and their ancestors surpassed the gods in goodness or rather appeared to do so.
Hardie provides much of the same examples as Clark and concludes that Virgil was influenced by all these aspects of different religions without subscribing solely to one. This certainly fits with the idea of a much more fluid ancient belief system. While it is impossible to come up with any reliable conclusion regarding Virgil’s beliefs, examining what is likely provides a good grounding and something to think about when examining his ideas presented in the actual poem.
In the ancient world, science was not very developed, and plagues and disasters, like the one in Crete in Book 3, seemed to afflict the world indiscriminately. Therefore, a polytheistic religion with partial and separate gods would seem plausible but far from comforting. Myths such as the one in lines 570-583 explain the unknown by telling stories of Enceladus crushed under the great mass” (“urgueri mole hac”) of “Mighty Etna” (“ingentemque… Aetnam”).
The Trojans believe that it is Aeneas’ tired turning that causes Sicily to tremble, not any geological force. Even the descriptions of Etna as a mountain are highly personified, with the mountain groaning and licking the stars. By explaining these mysterious happenings through myth and legend, they are putting them into a form they can understand in their own way.
It is undeniable that anthropomorphic deities are a part of the machinery of epic. For a poet of Virgil’s skill, they allow for massive exploitation of pictorial power. For example, in book 3, Virgil dedicates 46 lines to the detailed descriptions of the harpies. He conjures up a truly monstrous image that draws on all senses. From their “rank stench” and “infernal screeching” (“vox taetrum dira inter odorem”) to the “filth oozing from their bellies” (“foedissima ventris proluvies”), these repellent creatures are vividly portrayed.
Virgil ensures that the reader believes his initial claim that there are no prodigy more vile than these, nor plague more pitiless ere rose by wrath divine from Stygian wave” (“tristius haud illis monstrum, nec saevior ulla pestis et ira deum Stygiis sese extulit undis”). He also wants the reader to appreciate this new hardship as just one of many for the ever-enduring (“duri”) and ever-suffering Trojans. On many occasions, Virgil seems to be simply showing off as he demonstrates how divine elements can be deadly, terrifying but often beautiful too.
For example, in lines 173-180, Aeneas describes how he “marvelled” (“attonitus”) at the “heavenly presences so vocal and bright. It was not sleep, but face to face I deemed I could discern each countenance august and holy brow, each mantled head. And from my body ran a cold sweat of awe” (“visis et voce deorum—nec sopor illud erat, sed coram adgnoscere voltus velatasque comas praesentiaque ora videbar; tum gelidus toto manabat corpore sudor corripio e stratis corpus, tendoque supinas ad caelum cum voce manus, et munera libo intemerata focis”). The reader cannot help but be drawn into his sense of wonder. This helps us understand the faith and dedication of a man who is willing to follow an often not fully understood prophecy beyond even what may seem to be his best interests. For example, when he is forced to leave “little Troy” and the home comforts and stability it offers.
The explanation of the supernatural in the Aeneid is often seen as a mere exploitation of literary prowess. However, in my opinion, this fails to attribute enough importance to the characterisation of the gods. Their motives are always selfish; whether it is Juno’s pride, Neptune’s territorial nature or Hercules saving the Arcadians because someone stole his cows. There are no instances when the gods were motivated by apparently human ideas of justice or morality.
The gods, unrestrained by pain and death, do not seem to hold the same sense of justice as men. Beyond this, they expect nobility and morality from men but show no interest in following it themselves. The most explicit example of this occurs not in Book 3 but in Book 8 when we are presented with the scene of divine frivolity: the seduction of Vulcan by Venus. Juxtaposed with the stoic life of Evander, the two gods and their rich and ornate room do not conform to moral advice. Although their divinity places them above this advice, they seem to lose their nobility because they do not take it.
In a wider context, this passage is surrounded by images of war. The gods are entirely aloof from the sufferings of war, and their bedroom scene here makes a painful contrast with the scenes of battle to come. This toleration and causation of suffering deny the possibility of a heroic and noble god in the Aeneid. It is by no means beyond comprehension that men should be more virtuous than the more trivial gods. While this idea is developed more thoroughly throughout the entire poem, we do see it in the description in Book 3, line 138. This description is interesting regarding the realms of human and divine power and how vulnerable mortals are to divine will. The long-suffering Trojans believe they are following Apollo’s misleading instructions when they land at Crete, thinking it to finally be their homeland.
Virgil emphasizes the desperation of the men to reach their new homeland. He describes how they encourage each other to get to the island as soon as possible (hortantur socii”). Virgil engages the audience further by using a small passage on direct speech (“Cretam proavosque petamus!”, “On to Crete and our sires”). He then describes their eagerness (“avidus”) at finding a home, which was a basic need. The omens, which were important to ancient Greeks, appeared good; “freely behind us blew the friendly winds and gave smooth passage” (“prosequitur surgens a puppi ventus euntis”). However, he instantly juxtaposes this positive lexis with a terrible plague using coordinating conjunctions “when suddenly”. In my opinion, Virgil seems openly condemning of the morals of the gods in this scene.
Virgil does not hesitate to create pathos in his writing. The Trojans do not simply die; they “lose their sweet lives” (“linquebant dulcis animas”) and are seen desperately “dragging around their sickly bodies” (“aegra trahebant corpora”). He also makes it clear that the origins of the plague, the “corrupto caeli” (corrupted sky) and “Sirius” (the dog-star), are supernatural. The gods unfairly punish the Trojans, not for some sin or crime but simply because they chose the wrong ancestor out of a choice of two. Pietas,” a quality which includes duty to the gods and correct religious observance, was essential to Rome’s growth. Aeneas’ and the Trojans’ numerous prayers and sacrifices to Juno partly achieved her final reconciliation. Virgil is saying that being a pious nation brings an appropriate reward.
The Trojans consistently pray throughout the poem. For example, they pray each time they leave or arrive anywhere. Signs of prayer and ritual are frequent, even if just passing mentions of temples or dancing bacchants.” In lines 61-68, they ensure that Polydorus is buried according to proper funeral rites, delaying their important journey in order to pay proper respect. Virgil describes them as “immeritam” (“guiltless”) in line two of Book 3. However, for a poem in which piety is apparently favored above all other qualities, the act of prayer – or more specifically the results of an act of prayer – seem very inconsistent. It often seems to be the case that the gods are simply indifferent.
Prayer can sometimes move the gods, as seen when Anchises receives the optatae aurae” (winds prayed for). However, this is a rare occurrence. In Book 2, Juno turns her head away from the Trojans who are desperately praying as their city is destroyed. When Anchises prays in Book 3 for the gods to spare their “servate pios” (faithful votaries) from the Harpies’ curse, his prayers are ignored. This suggests that prayer has little real impact in the world of The Aeneid. The overall message seems to be that if fate is against you, there is little you can do about it. The Homeric gods – including Jupiter – are proud, wilful, partial, deceitful, immoral, insensitive and cruel; humans are vulnerable to their whims.
Coleman states that any chance events, both common and miraculous, are ascribed to divine causes. This brings emphasis to an event that has important consequences, enabling the narrative to rely less on chance and increasing the event’s importance. For example, Aeneas immediately reads the plague at Crete as a sign that they are in the wrong place. Almost every event that drives the Trojans onwards, from plagues to monsters, can be attributed to some kind of supernatural force. However, while there are some events that must happen, there are also many contingencies left to the self-determining human agent. Man is conditioned in many ways by the gods and his environment but is mostly a free-willing agent.
The gods give signs and omens, but it is always made clear that Aeneas chooses to follow them, using them as instruction rather than orders and often seeking out directions. It is worth noting that while other characters, such as Dido, Mezentius, and Turnus act in opposition to the fated order of events and end in disaster, Aeneas always cooperates and acts in harmony with destiny. According to Duckworth, Aeneas, far from being a weak character or a puppet in the hands of Fate, is in every way a worthy hero of the epic which bears his name… There is no lack of strong feeling in Aeneas but he has subordinated his feelings to the will of the gods and Fate.
He may sometimes be reluctant to follow the signs or unintentionally misinterpret them, but in the end, it is always his sense of piety and dedication to the future of Rome that wins out. It is not any sense of personal gain or even gain for his men; his dedication to the gods is greater even than that of his comrades. Although the Gods discussed so far create a very Homeric picture of religion in the Aeneid, juxtaposed to this is the decidedly unHomeric element of fate – a very interesting element of higher powers in the Aeneid. MacInnes distinguishes three separate meanings for fatum: firstly, as lot” for an individual; secondly, as “will” from individual gods; and thirdly, as overriding destiny for the world. Fate can also often be misleading – as seen in Book 3 when Anchises mistakenly decides Crete must be their allotted homeland while forgetting their double ancestry.
Beings other than the gods seem to have the power to create fate. For example, in Book 3, the harpy Celaeno appears with her curse that states: sed non ante datam cingetis moenibus urbem, quam vos dira fames nostraeque iniuria caeids ambesas subigat malis absumere mensas” (“But never shall you rear circling walls of your own city until our blood by you unjustly spilt, your famished jaws bite and your tables, and half devour”). However, fate is most often referred to as an ordained course of events – which is what the word “fata” means. If fate can be considered a deity, it is undoubtedly the most powerful one. Throughout the text there are many examples where Fate rules supreme; for instance, the Trojans must and will found Rome. MacInnes suggests that Virgil believed (or at least wrote The Aeneid with this belief) in one supreme spiritual deity whose decrees are fata – inviolable courses of destined events – but he has not irrevocably fixed every man’s destiny.
However, the gods and goddesses have little power against the impersonal and unalterable “fatum”. Fate sets a point at which history will arrive, such as the fall of Troy or the founding of Rome. While gods and men can delay this point and change the way it will be reached, they cannot change the event itself. Virgil accepts the undetermined state of mind on determinism that exists and allows freedom to his characters. In a deterministic world, omnipotence and omniscience would be meaningless to them. He reveals a strong faith in Rome, believing that her triumphant career is in accord with fate achieved through Jupiter’s favor despite conflicts with other divine forces.
In the Aeneid, religion is portrayed as real. The gods are depicted as individual and self-interested, while fate gives an overall direction to the poem. The gods determine the path between Troy and Rome, and their rivalry looms heavily over the narrative. At times, it seems that the story is less about mortal characters’ deeds than about the bickering of the gods who continually disrupt and manipulate events on Earth.
The Aeneid raises questions about human beings’ will function in a world where gods seem to control and destroy them at will. Indeed, this poem serves as a meditation on religious problems that still exist today in different forms.
