Social prejudices are rampant in all walks of life. It has persisted throughout history in many different forms, but all displaying the same characteristics: discrimination, oppression and aggression. Liberal groups and administrations have moved to eliminate these prejudices, and, at certain point of view, were successful at least in minimizing the violence that arises in social prejudices. Nevertheless, it continues to thrive in many societies as groups that were oppressed before still continue to be oppressed; there are people who still believe they are superior to some other and would isolate themselves against such inferior groups. Vincent Parrillo enumerated the psychological and sociological perspectives of prejudice, of which, unless corrected, the concept of equality will remain a myth. C. P. Ellis’ account is an example of racial prejudice that confirmed Parrillo’s theories and attests that the correction of perspectives may eliminate prejudice.
When the Founding Fathers of the United States of America declared their independence, they held “that all men are created equal.” Such were the ideologies that lead to one of the wars that shaped the nation and of the whole world: the American Civil War. Its primary cause may have been political; nevertheless, the topic that stirred its imminent inception was the debate on slavery, which was rampant especially in the southern states. Anti-slavery proponents believed it to be a contradiction that America as a nation had fought for liberty on the grounds that “all men were created equal” and yet it was the largest slaveholding nation. On the other hand, some pro-slavery proponents claim that African Americans, which composed primarily the slave population in America, were of an inferior race and enslaving them has some divine justification.
The result of the Civil War has decided the future of the nation, which ultimately eliminated slavery. The white discrimination against the blacks, however, would not. Until the ratification of the Civil Rights Act in 1964, social acceptance of blacks in a nation dominated by whites was not realized. But even in these modern times, racism and other forms of social prejudices still exist. “Old habits die hard,” so they say.
Vincent Parrillo, in the article “Causes of Prejudice,” held that there are two causes of prejudice: that of an individual’s psychological perspectives which “focus on the state of mind of individuals” and the sociological perspectives which “focus on the objective conditions of society as the social forces behind prejudicial attitudes…” (503). Furthermore, there are also three levels of prejudice, namely, the cognitive level which “encompasses a person’s beliefs and perceptions of a group”; the emotional level which “refers to the feelings that a minority group arouses in an individual”; and the action-orientation level which refers to the “positive or negative predisposition to engage in discriminatory behavior” (Parrillo 506-507). Parrillo also held that “prejudices shape our perceptions of various peoples and influence our attitudes and actions toward particular groups”.
Parrillo held that prejudice is enforced with self-justification. He believes that “if we can convince ourselves that another group is inferior, immoral, or dangerous, we may feel justified in discriminating against its members, enslaving them, or even killing them”. Parrillo explained, based on a number of investigations, that “frustration tend to increase aggression towards others”. He further explained that because the real cause of an individual’s frustration is “often too nebulous to be identified or too powerful to act against…, the frustrated individual or group usually redirects anger against a more visible, vulnerable, and socially sanctioned target, one unable to strike back”. Suitable targets of scapegoating, as the blaming of others is called, include, among others, those who were “a past target of hostility for whom latent hostility still exists” and those who were “the symbol of an unpopular concept”.
Self-justification and frustration, along with personality, are the causes of prejudice from the psychological perspective. As already specified, these are based on an individual’s perception against a group that the individual has prejudice. However, the society also plays an important role in an individual’s perception, hence, his or her prejudice against another. Parrillo believed, as Herbert Blumer suggested, “that prejudice always involves the ‘sense of group position’ in a society”. Parrillo further explains that as a product of the socialization process, “individuals acquire the values, attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions of their culture or subculture, including religion, nationality, and social class”.
Economic competition, as according to Parrillo, is another social cause for prejudice. He explained that “people tend to be more hostile toward others when they feel that their security is threatened”. Like any beliefs and virtues, an individual’s prejudice most often than not also conforms to the social norms.
Parrillo’s assessment of prejudice can be clearly seen in the racial discrimination in America prior to the Civil Rights Act. C. P. Ellis’ narration on overcoming his discrimination against African Americans confirms Parrillo’s assessment. C. P. Ellis confessed that his hate for African Americans emerged from his frustration in improving his social status which he could not do. He said:
“I really began to get bitter. I didn’t know who to blame. I tried to find somebody. I began to blame it on black people. I had to hate somebody. Hatin’ America is hard to do because you can’t see it to hate it. You gotta have somethin’ to look at to hate… The natural person for me to hate would be black people, because my father before me was a member of the Klan. As far as he was concerned, it was the savior of the white people. It was the only organization in the world that would take care of the white people. So I began to admire the Klan”.
This account of C. P. Ellis already confirms what Parrillo was stressing. This alone displays the most of the psychological and sociological perspectives of prejudice. As already specified, Ellis was already frustrated and was looking for someone to blame. This confirms Parrillo’s theory that wherein frustration plays an important role in one’s prejudice. Ellis’ frustration was due to the “lack of resources or rewards in one’s standard of living” that Parrillo predicted to result on “displaced aggression”. Parrillo also stated that “individuals with low self-esteem deprecate others to enhance their feelings about themselves”. He had the black people as scapegoats, who have been regarded by many as an inferior race. This confirms Parrillo’s theory that the choice of a scapegoat would usually be a “past target of hostility and for whom latent hostility still exists” which was definitely true for black people during Ellis’ time. Parrillo suggested that, as part of the socialization process, an individual often learn the prejudices of others, especially the individual’s parents . Ellis’ basis for hating the “blacks” was his father’s hate for them, never from any direct experience he may had. Eventually, Ellis became a member and soon the president of the Ku Klux Klan, a secret organization against black people, where he was associated with fellow “black” haters. Parrillo also explained as part of an individual’s psychological perspectives, the individual would not want to associate and mingle with the group who is the object of the individual’s prejudice, which was clearly exhibited by Ellis, though his perspectives would change in the end. He stated that a few times that he wouldn’t want to be associated with black people. It was imminent that Ellis’ hate for the “blacks” would result in aggression as exemplified in one scene Ellis himself related, and it was still due of his frustration. This confirms Parrillo’s and other investigators’ claim that “frustration tends to increase aggression towards others”. Even the economic competition theory was confirmed when Ellis described the Klan:
“The majority of ‘em are low income whites, people who really don’t have a part in something… Maybe they’ve had bitter experiences in this life and they had to hate somebody. So the natural person to hate would be the black person. He’s beginnin’ to come up, he’s beginnin’ to learn to read and start votin’ and run for political office. Here are white people who are supposed to be superior to them and we’re shut out.
Ellis’ transformation from a “black hater” to someone who was able to willingly work with them and accept their humanity confirms the social norm theory. Parrillo explained that “people’s prejudice should decrease or increase significantly when they move into areas where the prejudicial norm is lesser or greater”. Ellis’ nomination and winning the co-chairmanship in the AFL-CIO was the start of his transformation. His interaction with many black individuals eventually shifted his general view of them. It was there that he began to associate himself with black people as fellow human beings with the same thoughts, problems and feeling as he.
Psychological and sociological perspectives can cause an individual to have prejudices against another group. It may also be noted that as a result of this perspectives, an individual may or may not realize these prejudices. But as exemplified by Ellis’ account, and according to Parrillo’s suggestion, prejudices may be decreased, if not eliminated at all. Correcting psychological and sociological perspectives are sure to change an individual’s attitude from having discriminatory inclination towards another group of people to learning to live with and among them. History itself is a witness that changing the sociological perspectives has changed people’s attitude towards a group that was an object of prejudice, though there are still a lot to be done to eliminate it completely. Until such time, the concept that “all men are created equal” will remain to be a myth.
Works Cited
Parrillo, Vincent N. “The causes of prejudice.”
Terkel, Studs. “C. P. Ellis.”
