There is a lively exhibition of Hinduism happening in America, with various events and celebrations occurring throughout the country. In Chicago and Edison, Ras and Garbha dances are performed during Navratri, while Diwali fireworks illuminate Manhattan’s South Street Seaport. The air resonates with conches and hymnals at temple ceremonies in Pittsburgh and Flushing, where new deities are also being consecrated at the Balaji Temple in Bridgewater, N.J., as well as at the foundation-laying ceremony for a new Shree Raseshwari temple in Austin, Texas. From small gatherings in a three-car garage in Glen Mills, Pa., to larger festivities at Atlanta and New York University, Hinduism has truly brought the American landscape to life through its visual and auditory splendor.
On Oct. 25, Jackson Heights’ 74th Street, which is considering changing its name to ‘Little India’, was turned into a Lucknavi Diwali mela. This included Indian sweet and chat stalls and a shadow puppet performance. New York Mayor David Dinkins and San Jose’s Mayor Susan Hammer both attended similar events in their cities. Meanwhile, in Monroeville, Pa., the India Heritage Research Foundation is compiling an Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Also, in Rahway, N.J., the International foundation for Vedic Education, established in March, has announced plans for an international conference on Atharva Vedas in July 1993. It is clear that these initiatives are promoting Indian culture and education.
The Indian American population has experienced a significant increase in the 1980s, leading to a Hindu resurgence in a foreign country. This growth has allowed for the establishment of Indian American religious institutions and temples throughout various towns and cities in the United States. Before this time, discriminatory national origin quotas were in place, but since their removal in 1965, the Indian population has grown significantly and is now approaching one million.
Due to population growth, many first generation Indian Americans now see the United States as their permanent home and value institutions that preserve their cultural and religious traditions for future generations. Raymond Williams, a renowned professor of philosophy and religion at Wabash College and author of influential books on Hinduism in the United States, explains that religion had limited influence on Indian immigrants during the initial two decades. This was primarily due to their education and urban living conditions.
Indian immigrants in America are increasingly adopting Hinduism, surpassing their religious practices from when they lived in India. The act of practicing religion has now become a conscious and deliberate effort for them. This resurgence of Hinduism among immigrants is not limited to America; previous immigrant communities have also made similar efforts to transplant their religious traditions. As stated by John Felton, an associate professor of religion at Emory University, the replication of religious practices occurs when there is a significant population of immigrants. Ramakrishna Chalikonda, a member of the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society, explains that their aim is to preserve elements of their culture. As part of this endeavor, the Sri Venkateswara Temple was established in Bridgewater, N.J., in February.
According to Fenton’s survey, 94% of Indians residing in Atlanta believe that preserving cultural values is important or very important. Chalikonda echoes this sentiment, expressing that the longer they stay away from India, the stronger their longing for it becomes and their desire to relive the same emotions.
Indian Americans in the United States have historically experienced faster growth compared to other immigrant communities due to their high education and affluence. In October, the Hindu Temple of Greater Chicago achieved a significant milestone during its annual fund-raiser by raising $128,000 in cash and pledges. This accomplishment enabled the temple to make a substantial dent in its debt, which totaled $1.7 million. Around 75% of the debt was paid off using these funds. Additionally, earlier this year, the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society acquired a Bridgewater Church through a bankruptcy auction by providing a deposit of 10%, which amounted to $90,000. Shortly after, they managed to raise an impressive amount of $800,000 within just 42 days.
The Hindu Temple and Cultural Center in Berlin has an annual budget of $15,000 and serves around 900 families in South Jersey. The center was established by its 100 founding members who collectively paid upwards of $15,000. Given the importance of religion in Indian life, Indians would gather in homes for religious activities even before they could afford religious institutions in cities where their numbers were small. In 1982, they purchased a rundown church in Berlin for just $50,000. Prior to this acquisition, Indian families in South Jersey would gather once a month at Osage School in Voorhees. Similarly, this February, they outbid a Korean Church and the YMCA, spending $850,000 to acquire an unoccupied Trinity Church in Bridgewater, N.J. Until then, Indian Americans in the area would meet in local school buildings for Telugu language classes.
That tradition continues in cities with small Indian American populations, but even in areas where their numbers are few, temples have started to appear. Augusta, Ga., which is home to only 500 Indians, who previously gathered in homes, recently inaugurated a new temple. According to Fenton in Transplanting Religious Traditions, while Indians adapt well in public situations, they still have mixed feelings towards American culture and hold strong attachments to Indian lifestyles, cultural traditions, and idealized views of India.
As they navigate their American surroundings and Indian heritage, individuals engage with a blend of private and public, indigenous and alien cultures. While embracing American material culture, they may not necessarily adopt typical middle-class values. Strengthening their Indian identity involves regular visits to India, obtaining spouses from their home country, participating in secular and religious organizations, as well as consuming Indian movies, music, news, and other cultural media.
The Hindu temple visitors in the United States who are U.S. citizens account for only 25 percent, often due to various reasons. These temples represent the most prominent form of the Hindu revival and their numbers have been increasing since 1977 when the first temple established by Indian immigrants, Sri Venkateswara Temple in Pittsburgh, was built. Over time, approximately 50 new temples have been constructed across different locations including New York, Hawaii, Allentown (Pennsylvania), San Francisco, Calabasas, Berkley, Fremont, and Livermore (California), Denver, Aurora and Boulder (Colorado), Oakland Park and Miami (Florida), Atlanta and Augusta (Georgia), Chicago Urbana and Aurora(Illinois) , New Orleans(Louisiana) Boston and Ashland(Massachusetts) , Adelphi,Bethesda,Silver Spring,and Lanham(Maryland) Troy Flint,Lansing,and Bridgewater(New Jersey) Toledo Cincinnati Beavercreek Columbus(Ohio ) Nashville Memphis(Tennessee ) Houston Pearland ,and San Antonio(Texas ), among others.
This Nov. 6, the Balaji Mandir in Bridgewater, N.J. is consecrating marble idols from Tirupathi and Jaipur. The consecration ceremony is an elaborate three-day event. In early October, the Sri Siva-Vishnu Temple in Lanham, Md. started constructing a new shrine dedicated to Sri Venkateswara. Currently, there are few concentrated population centers of Indian Americans without Indian temples. Some areas have multiple temples, while others have plans for constructing one. In 1973, the Pittsburgh Indians began worshiping in a renovated Baptist church.
Assisted by the Sri Venkateswara Temple in Tirupathi, Tamil Nadu, the Sri Venkateswara Temple was dedicated four years later. Following the Pittsburgh Temple, the Monroeville temple was dedicated by North Indians. Other established temples include Flushing’s Mahaganapati Temple, Houston’s Sri Meenakshi Temple, and Smyrna’s Balaji Temple. Additionally, New York features religious institutions and smaller temples like Hanuman Mandir, Geeta Temple, and Swaminarayan Temple. These institutions are guided by various gurus including Chinmaya Mission, Sathya Sai Baba, Bhram Kumaris, and the Hare Krishnas.
The city also houses many gurdwaras and Indian Christian churches. The presence of numerous temples reflects the religious diversity within the Indian American community. According to Williams, as a community grows in size, different types of religious institutions emerge. While some temples, like the Geeta Temple in New York, the Hindu Temple in Pittsburgh, and the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center in Berlin, NJ, are inclusive, sub-ethnic identities and religious diversity become more prominent with increasing population. Various cities now have separate temples dedicated to South Indian and North Indian communities. Atlanta boasts a million-dollar Sri Venkateswara Temple, a Shakti Mandir, and a Swaminarayan Temple.
Plans are in progress for the construction of a Greater Atlanta Vedic Temple to serve North Indians and Indians from Trinidad and Fiji. The Swaminarayan sect, which has over 20,000 followers in the United States, has established 30 centers nationwide, including large campuses with temples. Major cities like New York City, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, and New Jersey have temples built by the estimated 30,000 Jains residing in the U.S. In Pittsburgh, the Indian American community split early on – North Indians wanted a modern temple with multiple deities while South Indians preferred a single primary deity. Consequently, there are now two temples in the city with plans for a third one. Hindu communities in America are beginning to organize based on religious and regional differences while celebrating the diverse aspects of Hinduism from various parts of India. Some temples aim to unify India’s religious pluralism through a single organizational structure.
The India Temple Association was founded in 1975 in South Jersey, with the intention of having equal representation of all religious traditions by establishing a council of trustees. This council consisted of members from four different geographic regions of India. In order to adapt to the changing demographics of Indian Americans, the association revised its constitution in 1982. The new constitution introduced a board of trustees with 24 members, with three representatives from each of the four zones. Many U.S. temples have been constructed through strong partnerships with prominent Indian temples.
The Sri Venkateswara Temple in Tirupathi, Tamil Nadu, is renowned for its support of constructing Balaji temples in various locations—such as Pittsburgh, Flushing, Atlanta, and Houston. Nevertheless, some argue that transplanting Hinduism to other countries is challenging due to its deep roots in Indian culture. Even within India itself, Hinduism is undergoing changes. Moreover, the absence of a single sacred text like the Bible or Koran and an organized system similar to the Catholic church pose difficulties in transplanting Hinduism. Adapting Hinduism to the American context necessitates compromises and has resulted in transformations in its practices and traditions.
To comply with building regulations, temples in the United States provide public restroom facilities. Hindus residing in the US typically engage in their religious rituals at home, often before personal shrines. Certain Hindus may opt for embracing the idea of karma yogi, whereby they fulfill their ethical and spiritual obligations through their occupation.
One significant change that Hindus have made in the public arena is embracing an institutional structure, which is absent in India. In the United States, the practice of Hinduism is done through group association. Even individuals who were previously indifferent towards religious institutions in India are now actively involved, often making generous contributions. Fenton’s survey of Indians in Atlanta revealed that nearly half of the Indian population engages in group worship at least once a month.
Fenton suggests that immigrants feel a stronger religious obligation in the United States due to the belief that it is their responsibility to perpetuate their religion and culture. Unlike temples in India, Hindu temples in the US maintain a list of members and rely on them for growth and upkeep. These temples also serve as cultural hubs, organizing various events such as Navratri celebrations, including Ras and Garbha dances, bhajans, Bhangra, and Diwali festivities, occasionally to raise funds for temple operations.
According to Fenton’s Atlanta survey, a minority of Indians in the city (only 16 percent) consider religion as their top priority when it comes to preserving Indian cultural traits. In contrast, family and the Indian character are more important to them. As a result, several temples, including those in Berlin and Allentown, organize programs like baluihar for children, yoga abhyasa for adults, and youth programs. Additionally, the Mahaganpathi Temple in Flushing is constructing a mandap specifically for wedding ceremonies.
The Berlin temple has recently acquired a mandap for the approximately twenty wedding ceremonies that occur annually at the temple. This element of temples is rooted in the belief that Indian culture and religion are inseparable. Mahesh Dixit, a priest at the Hindu Temple in Berlin, N.J., elaborates that Hinduism is not just a religion but also a way of life that cannot be detached from everyday existence. Religion and culture are intertwined. Temples, as stated by Chalikonda, serve as not only places of worship but also hubs of culture. He emphasizes that people are more likely to support the growth of a temple due to its cultural significance. However, cultural activities also play a crucial role in the Bridgewater temple. The connection between religious and cultural aspects was clearly apparent in 1983 when Atlanta’s Indian American Cultural Association discussed their goals for an Indian cultural center during a general body meeting.
The members declined the idea of making the center secular and focused solely on cultural activities. Instead, they decided to call it the India Cultural and Religious Center. Likewise, the Hindu Temple Association in South Jersey named its center the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center. While there is a strong desire to maintain traditional worship practices, Hindu temples are learning the necessity of adapting rituals to accommodate local conditions. Fenton highlights that Hindu temples in the United States welcome everyone, even those who are not familiar with purity regulations, and that Brahmins are not always responsible for cooking food.
The Atlanta temple allows the serving of meat and alcohol in nontemple areas of the center. Additionally, most temples have limited worship hours, usually only on weekends. The Berlin, N.J., temple has a small weekday attendance of less than a dozen people, but attracts up to a hundred visitors on weekends and between 600 to 800 during major events like Diwali. Within his congregation, Dixit states that there has been lively debate on the approach of bhakti marg, the path of devotion, which argues that humans are liberated by god through their devotion regardless of their understanding of rituals. On the other hand, gyan marg is advocated by those who seek true knowledge.
The focus of the argument is the preservation of traditional rituals and their authenticity. At the Berlin temple, there are many volunteers who engage in puja, including those who do not belong to the Brahmin caste. While conservatives may believe that only Brahmins are eligible to perform rituals, Dixit argues that being a Brahmin is not solely based on being born into a Brahmin family. According to Dixit, a Brahmin is defined by having the qualities and purity associated with the Brahmin caste. Dixit asserts that individuals from various sectors of India, such as Patel, Gandhi, Bhatnagar, Dave, Amin, and Vardhana, all contribute to the services at the Berlin temple.
The temple decided to keep the stained glass windows it got from a rundown church in 1982. Some of the windows needed repairs, which were done at a high cost. According to Dixit, this was done because the windows are considered “good art from western civilization.” However, the rigidity and sanctity of traditional rituals can be controversial for some congregations. For example, at the Geeta Temple in Corona, bhajans are performed in Hindi, while at the Flushing temple, which is mostly visited by South Indians, pujas and rituals are conducted in Sanskrit by pujaris.
The Sri Venkateswara temple in Pittsburgh and the newly-opened Bridgewater temple both face challenges in maintaining the sanctity of rituals. The Bridgewater temple has brought in two priests from India, as there are no training facilities for priests available in the United States. However, financial resources and circumstances often impose limitations on the ritualistic forms practiced at these temples. Some congregations and priests prioritize upholding tradition, while others make modifications or provide explanations.
In the Berlin temple, due to limited resources and part-time volunteer priests, only one worship ceremony is performed daily instead of the traditional three times demanded by Hindu tradition. However, plans are in place to hire a full-time pujari for the temple. Like many other freelance priests, Dixit currently serves as the volunteer priest at the Berlin temple. He was asked to assume the role 25 years ago when the original pujari did not attend a wedding. Being a Brahmin and having attended a sanskrit patshala, Dixit was able to step in and perform the wedding ceremony.
As Dixit lacked knowledge of rituals, he secluded himself in a room with a guidebook. After four hours, he emerged and conducted his inaugural 45-minute ceremony. From that time onward, Dixit found himself officiating similar ceremonies, especially during the initial years when finding priests was difficult. Despite this, he does not identify as a professional priest and continues to carry out his priestly responsibilities voluntarily. He views it as his karma and obligation. When presiding over a wedding ceremony, Dixit dresses in a traditional kurta pyjama.
After the ceremony concludes, he attends the reception wearing a suit. He clarifies, “I am in a different role now; I am no longer a priest. This is a fundamental aspect of Hindu philosophy – we play various roles.” Dixit explains that Hinduism offers such conveniences, stating that it grants us the freedom to think and express ourselves. As the second generation emerges, Hinduism will undoubtedly undergo even more significant transformations.
According to Fenton, the new Hinduism that will arise will have a broader scope, less focus on specific sects and regions, and less emphasis on temples. Although temples may continue to flourish among new immigrants, there will be a division between the second and third generations. However, Hinduism in America is not entirely restrictive. The establishment of new temples necessitates intricate Pran Pratishtha ceremonies to sanctify the deities.
These ceremonies are quite uncommon in India, as most temples have existed for a long time and few people have had the chance to witness them. According to Dixit, individuals from India who have attended one of the three ceremonies held at the Berlin temple have expressed amazement at the rare opportunity to witness such an event. On the other hand, the upcoming consecration of deities at the Balaji Mandir in Bridgewater, N.J., on November 6th, is just one among nearly 100 similar consecrations that have taken place in the United States in the past ten years. It should also be noted that the changes in Hinduism are not solely occurring in one direction.
According to Williams, the silpis from Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, who were involved in temple construction projects in Chicago and Pittsburgh in the United States, have returned to India and are now utilizing the architectural techniques they learned abroad. He further suggests that with the advancements in communication and travel, this transformation in India is likely to escalate. Williams also acknowledges that this process might culminate in the emergence of a new form of “global Hinduism.” The motivation behind the imperative felt by many first-generation Indian Americans to develop their religious institutions stems from their concerns for the succeeding generation.
Many Indian American parents believe it is essential to have Indian institutions to assist in preserving their children’s Indian cultural identity, as they are primarily exposed to American traditions. According to Dixit, the temple is particularly crucial for the younger generation. He states, “Our children need it more than us. While we have a small altar at home and worship, there is a necessity to familiarize second-generation Indians with the Hindu tradition. Unfortunately, we are losing this battle as our children are predominantly immersed in Western culture for 300 days of the year. However, through the 26 annual balvihar meetings, we provide them with some opportunity for choice and exposure to their heritage.”
The Berlin temple, like many others, has had some success in its efforts. It organizes regular programs for youth, such as a bimonthly balvihar for the physical, mental, and spiritual development of youngsters. Additionally, there is yoga abhyasa for adults and youth programs aimed at promoting knowledge and understanding of Hindu dharma. Similarly, other temples offer youth camps, language courses, and Indian dance training. However, the second generation shows little enthusiasm for these temples. Indian American students in religion classes at Emory University struggle to comprehend the puja rituals because they are conducted in Sanskrit. Even parents often do not understand these rituals well enough to explain them to their children.
The children are aware of the moment to eat and can identify aarti. Due to the insufficient religious education system and the significant influence of socialization and Americanization on children, Felton believes that Hindu traditions are unlikely to prevail. It is ironic because the first generation is establishing these institutions for the children, but they will not achieve the desired impact.
However, Dixit claims that religious educational programming is successful in children who undergo it. He explains that it is simple for him to identify children who have taken part in a balvihar program. As the Community grows older, Dixit conveys that he perceives a stronger family structure in children who have been exposed to Hindu camps for youth. These camps are mainly organized by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad and sometimes by regional temples and religious organizations, as part of an ongoing effort to pass on religious traditions to the younger generation (See accompanying story).
At the camps, children learn about various aspects of Hinduism such as yoga, meditation, aarti, dandia, and Hindu philosophy. One boy at the Vivekanand Camp expressed his curiosity about Hinduism and his uncertainty about his own religious identity. By the end of the camp, he requested a mala and wanted to learn how to chant “Om Namah.” In a survey conducted by Felton, it was revealed that over half of Atlanta youth identify as religious and nearly two-thirds participate in individual worship at least once a week.
However, Felton believes that a more open-minded expression of worship is bound to occur. He states, “As they mature, Indian Americans will develop a unique form of Hinduism specific to America.” In comparison to the past, America is noticeably more accepting of Indian Americans and their religious practices. Eight decades ago, the arrival of a small number of Sikhs sparked alarm, leading to reports of a “turbaned tide” and the perception of an “Indian invasion.” Since then, Indian Americans have maintained a relatively low profile, resulting in minimal public awareness of their community and their religion. Nevertheless, their increasing influence in the motel industry is starting to gain attention.
According to Felton, Americans may react hostilely towards foreigners, as they have towards the Japanese, due to the difficult economic times. Currently, only the Methodist Church has made attempts to convert Hindus. The Indian Christian churches and mainstream American churches have not been very active in this regard. However, Felton mentions that there is some local awareness of Hindus and there have been isolated incidents of vandalism at temples.
Zoning conflicts faced by many Hindu communities may stem from a more subtle form of racism. In July, the Norwalk, Calif., City Council voted against allowing the construction of a $1.2 million Swaminarayan temple next to two Christian churches in the township, despite protests from residents. Mayor Robert J. Arthur cited worries about increased traffic due to the temple’s service to the Indian community in Southern California.
Several Indian Americans criticized the council’s actions as racist, while the Long Beach Press Telegram wrote an editorial condemning the ruling as excessively narrow-minded. The newspaper suggested that if the request had come from a Catholic church, the council’s response would have been different. During a well-attended public hearing, many residents wore badges stating “Preserve Our Neighborhood.” Fenton notes that it is challenging to determine whether hidden prejudices against foreign religions are at play in these zoning disputes because they are often intertwined with concerns over parking and accessibility. Although difficult to prove, some believe that racism may be a factor. As a result, certain Indian temples are bypassing zoning hurdles by purchasing vacant churches.
Atlanta Indians spent $250,000 to buy a Pentecostal church in Smyrna, which they then converted into a temple. In a similar manner, the Berlin temple also acquired a church that was available for sale. Recently, the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society in Bridgewater obtained an unoccupied church building from bankruptcy court. Chalikonda acknowledges that the presence of permits and zoning clearance was a factor in their decision. Despite this, the temple organizations have been cautious about potential local opposition to the transformation of churches into temples.
The Atlanta temple did not face any issues as the congregation had relocated to a larger building elsewhere. On the other hand, the Trinity Church in Bridgewater was never used as it went into bankruptcy after an internal conflict within the congregation. However, since the congregation is from out of town and the church is not in a residential area, potential problems are minimized. Felton, who expresses his interest in Hinduism, hopes that Hinduism will not only be accepted but also contribute positively to the religious environment. He believes that the new era of pluralism brings enrichment by facilitating meaningful conversations between individuals with diverse religious beliefs and opportunities for mutual learning.
As Hinduism becomes part of the diverse religious landscape in America, Williams believes that it is challenging to determine the effects of this religious pluralism on society. He acknowledges the need for a new foundation for civic life and intercommunity relationships, but notes that it will be achieved through negotiations among different groups. The specific form of this new foundation remains unknown.
