Methods and approaches to teaching have been significantly impacted by the research conducted by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Both have made valuable contributions to the field of education by providing explanations for children’s cognitive learning styles and capabilities. This essay aims to explore how Vygotsky’s perspective on cognitive development, instead of serving as an alternative, actually complements Piaget’s. To begin with, the term cognitive will be defined, followed by an examination of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. Finally, we will analyze how Vygotsky’s views align with and enhance Piaget’s ideas.
According to Flanagan (1996:72), cognitive development encompasses the acquisition of mental processes related to thinking and mental activity, including attention, memory, and problem solving. It represents a comprehensive set of mental processes. Piaget and Vygotsky were instrumental in establishing a more scientific approach to examining the child’s active construction of knowledge in the cognitive development process. Although Piaget and Vygotsky may have contrasting perspectives on children’s cognitive development, they both provide valuable suggestions for educators on how to teach specific material in a manner suitable for their developmental stage.
Both Piaget and Vygotsky acknowledged that children’s cognitive development occurs in stages (Jarvis, Chandler 2001 P. 149). However, they differed in their approaches to thinking. Piaget was the first to demonstrate that children’s reasoning and thinking abilities differ across various stages of their lives. According to Piaget’s Stage Theory, all children go through four distinct stages of cognitive development: sensori-motor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational (Ginsburg, Opper, 1979:26).
During the first stage, known as the sensori-motor stage, which takes place from birth to the age of two, infants mainly focus on their immediate surroundings. They develop an understanding of physical objects and concentrate on motor skills and the outcomes of their actions (Thomson and Meggit, 1997:107). Within this stage, children also acquire the concept of object permanence, which is the understanding that an object still exists even if it is not visible (Ginsburg, Opper 1979 P. 48). For example, if a toy falls off the bed, the child will search for it because they comprehend that it continues to exist.
The preoperational stage, lasting from two to seven years, is a period when children develop the ability to engage in conversations and acquire skills such as counting and understanding numbers. This stage can be further divided into two phases: the preoperational phase, characterized by a focus on verbal skills and an attempt to make sense of the world with a less developed mode of thought compared to adults, and the intuitive phase, where children gradually shift from relying on concrete experiences with objects to drawing conclusions.
One issue in this stage is that children cannot cognitively conserve relevant spatial information. This means that when they manipulate a material and the resulting shape no longer matches their cognitive image, they think the amount of material has changed rather than just its shape (Jarvis and Chandler, 2001:135). In the Concrete Operational stage, which occurs between ages seven and ten, children attend school and start working with abstract concepts like numbers, relationships, and reasoning.
Children are now able to categorize certain things and arrange objects in order by size, number, or other organizational methods. They develop logical reasoning skills and the ability to think systematically. With this cognitive growth, children understand the concept of reversibility and conservation, where mental and physical operations can be reversed. They also start to comprehend others’ perspectives and become capable of multitasking.
During the concrete operational stage, usually between the ages of 7 and 11, individuals can perform mental operations but only concerning physical objects, events, or situations (Jarvis and Chandler, 2001:139). As children progress into the formal operational stage, typically between the ages of 12 and 15, their thinking patterns become more similar to those of adults. They begin to engage in logical, systematic, and hypothetical reasoning processes (Jarvis and Chandler, 2001 P. 139). In simpler terms, they develop the ability to imagine things that may not exist or that they have never encountered before.
This stage is a more advanced version of the previous stage, with similarities to it. The formal operational person possesses meta-cognition, which refers to the ability to think about thinking. Piaget also put forth theories on Adaptation and Development. The adaptation theory, alternatively called the Constructivist theory, encompasses three essential processes that aid in a child’s cognitive development: assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium. Assimilation pertains to integrating new events into pre-existing cognitive structures.
The process of accommodation involves adjusting mental structures to accommodate new information. Equilibration occurs when a person balances themselves with their environment, assimilation, and accommodation. When a child encounters something new, they experience disequilibrium until they can assimilate and accommodate the new information and achieve equilibrium. The different types of equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation vary based on developmental levels and the problems that need to be solved (Thomson and Meggit, 1997:105). Assimilation-accommodation is a dual process that allows children to form schemas. Each stage brings new methods for organizing knowledge and acquiring new schemas. Schemas are action plans that guide us in understanding our surroundings (Hayes b. P. 15).
These ideas are similar to responses but involve more cognitive processes. A schema includes concepts, information, actions, and plans. Individuals can learn by adopting new schemas or combining smaller existing schemas to create larger ones (Hayes, 1999, p. 98). In contrast to Piaget’s theories, Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and philosopher in the 1930s, is primarily known for his social constructivist theory. He made three general claims: Culture – higher mental functioning in individuals arises from social processes; Language – human social and psychological processes are heavily influenced by cultural tools; and the developmental concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) – a time-limited period in which a child’s potential is restricted (Jarvis & Chandler, 2001, pp. 149-150).
According to Jarvis and Chandler (2001:149-150), Vygotsky held the view that adults and peers of a child bear the responsibility of sharing their extensive collective knowledge with the younger generations. This approach to learning aligns with a discovery model wherein the teacher takes an active role while the students naturally develop their mental abilities through diverse paths of discovery. Vygotsky contended that children acquire cultural ‘tools’ and social inventions through engaging in social activities.
According to Vygotsky, various aspects of human culture, such as language, rules, counting systems, writing, art, and music, played a crucial role in a child’s development. Language acted as a system of symbolic representation that had evolved over generations and allowed children to mentally abstract their surroundings. It provided the necessary symbols for children to create equations about the world. Vygotsky classified language into three forms: Social, Egocentric, and Inner. For Vygotsky, language formed the basis of thinking itself and differentiated basic thinking from advanced thinking.
Flanagan (1999, p. 72) states that Vygotsky’s theory identifies the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as the present and potential skills of a child to accomplish specific tasks. Vygotsky classifies problem-solving tasks into three categories: (a) tasks that a student can complete on their own (“independent performance”), (b) tasks that are impossible to perform even with assistance, and (c) tasks that can be accomplished with assistance from others (“assisted performance”) (Santrock, 1994).
Flanagan (1999 P. 73) viewed Vygotsky’s notion of the ‘ZPD’ as a means to progress education and improve comprehension of the learning process. Bruner expanded on Vygotsky’s concept by introducing scaffolding, which involves providing assistance to a child in order to facilitate their learning. Similar to the scaffolding around a building, this support can be taken away once it is no longer necessary. By demonstrating how to complete a task, a child can eventually accomplish it autonomously.
Jarvis and Chandler (2001, p. 154) suggest that Vygotsky emphasized the importance of understanding both the child’s personal history and the cultural context in which they develop. Vygotsky’s perspective challenges Piaget’s notion that cognitive development is solely determined by internal processes. According to Santrock (1994), Piaget recognized that while there is a universal sequence of stages in child development, the pace at which children progress through these stages can vary depending on factors like maturity, social influences, and other individual characteristics.
According to Piaget, children should not be forced to learn skills needed for the next level until they are cognitively ready. (Flanagan 1999:105) On the other hand, Vygotsky believed that instruction should come before development and guide the learner into the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Piaget and Vygotsky had contrasting views, with Piaget suggesting that cognitive changes come before linguistic advances, while Vygotsky proposed that language provides greater freedom of thought and leads to further cognitive development. (Flanagan 1999:59) Piaget focused on the development of thinking and believed that language evolves from individual to social. (Ginsburg, Opper 1979:84)
According to Jarvis and Chandler (2001:150), Vygotsky believed that language developed from the social context to the individual. Vygotsky shared Piaget’s perspective on the importance of the relationship between the individual and society. However, Vygotsky emphasized that adults and the Childs peers should take responsibility for sharing their collective knowledge with younger generations.
According to Flanagan (2001 P. 72), he disputed the possibility of a child’s individual learning and growth, asserting that the culture and environment surrounding the child significantly influenced their cognitive development. He further believed that a child’s development relied on learning from others in their upbringing. However, Piaget (Jarvis, Chandler 2001 P. 129) held a contrasting perspective, suggesting that children naturally possess curiosity about their abilities and environment, and that their knowledge progresses due to biologically regulated cognitive changes (Flanagan 2001 P. 57).
According to Piaget, a child can only learn the processes in each stage at any given time (Flanagan 1999 P. 60). However, Piaget overlooks the role of the child’s activity in relation to their thought processes. Piaget believes that children construct knowledge through their actions on the world. In contrast, Vygotsky’s stages are a smooth and gradual process. Vygotsky emphasizes that understanding is socially influenced. Vygotsky places special importance on cultural and social aspects, which is different from Piaget’s theories.
According to Vygotsky, Piaget’s belief that developmental growth was unaffected by experience and based on universal stages is questionable. Vygotsky argued that characteristics continue beyond certain points and that once something is learned, it is consistently applied. It doesn’t halt when a child enters a new developmental stage; rather, progress is ongoing. Additionally, Vygotsky disagreed with Piaget’s notion that instruction cannot hinder or hasten development.
According to Flanagan (1999, p. 57), Vygotsky refuted Piaget’s belief that intellectual development occurs in stages with a definitive endpoint. Instead, Vygotsky posited that intellectual development is a continuous process without any specified completion point. Piaget, on the contrary, asserted that his stages of development only apply up until the age of approximately fifteen. It appears that Piaget’s theory does not account for significant factors beyond this age. However, Piaget did revise his views and research methodologies over time to give greater importance to the role of a child’s activity, influenced by his own experiences.
Despite being critical of Piaget, Vygotsky recognized the value of the information Piaget had collected. He built his educational theories on the strengths of Piaget’s theories, acknowledging their complementary nature in cognitive development. By examining and integrating both Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s ideas and theories, particularly in the context of education, there is still much more to be learned and built upon. Piaget introduced various educational strategies that are applicable, including discovery learning with a focus on activity and play.
Vygotsky emphasized the significance of social interactions and co-construction of knowledge in the theory of cognitive development. Hence, teachers should prioritize assisting students and offering cultural tools as educational resources. To facilitate the discovery process, teachers should facilitate group and peer learning to encourage mutual support. In today’s diverse classrooms, it is essential for teachers to be sensitive to students’ cultural background and language, actively engaging with their knowledge.
