In this assignment, I will explore three prominent theories of development: ‘Cognitive’ by Piaget (1896 – 1980), ‘Psychosocial Theory’ by Erikson (1902 – 1994), and ‘Psychosexual’ by Freud (1856 – 1939).
According to Hearnshaw (1987) cited in ‘T. Malim’ (1994), Cognitive Psychology is both one of the oldest and newest branches of Psychology. It compares the human mind to a computer, suggesting that like computers, we receive information from our environment and respond accordingly. Our senses, such as vision, touch, and smell, collect data which our brain processes. The key areas of study in Cognitive Psychology include Cognitive development, memory, attention, artificial intelligence perception, and social cognition. Commonly used research methods involve conducting laboratory experiments in controlled settings like memory tests and case studies.
Piaget, (J), (1896-1980), conducted case studies on his own children to investigate the stages of cognitive development. Piaget deduced that the child is an organism that adjusts to its surroundings and also believed that all children experience the same stages of development without any personal variations.
During the Sensorimotor stage (0-2), children have egocentric tendencies and struggle to differentiate themselves from their surroundings. They possess no concept of past or future, focusing solely on the present moment. Babies rely on their senses of sight, hearing, and touch, as well as instinctual behaviors such as sucking, crawling, and observing (Moonie, N, 1995). Their understanding does not include the notion that objects continue to exist when out of sight. Nevertheless, Bower & Wishart (1972) conducted an experiment utilizing infrared cameras to observe how children react when an object disappears. Initially presented with a visible bottle, the child attempts to reach for it. Even after turning off the lights, Bower & Wishart found that the child persists in trying to grab the bottle for up to 1.5 minutes following its disappearance. Additionally, Piaget suggests that children not only search for hidden objects but also fail to search for them even if part of the object remains visible. For active searching behavior by a child to occur, the object must be entirely visible. Around 6-7 months old is when a child starts recognizing partially visible objects and by 8 months old they actively search for completely concealed objects. It is important to acknowledge that these developmental milestones can vary since Piaget discovered variations in reaching these stages among children at different ages. Piaget refers to this comprehension of an object’s continued existence despite being out of sight as “Object Permanence”.
The Pre-operational Stage, which spans from ages 2 to 7, is characterized by the development of language and thought. It is referred to as pre-operational because children in this age group have not yet acquired logical thinking or an understanding of how things work. Piaget divided this stage into two parts: ‘Pre-Conceptual’ (ages 2-4) and ‘Intuitive Thought’ (ages 4-7). In the Pre-Conceptual stage, children struggle to differentiate attributes like color or size. For instance, if given large and small red bricks to sort, they would group them solely based on their color without considering their size. Piaget called this cognitive process ‘Syncretic Thinking’, where objects are grouped together based on similarities such as color, regardless of their shapes or sizes. Additionally, a child at this stage may not distinguish different colors for balls; instead, they simply see all balls as balls due to their shared similarity.
Between the ages of 4-7, children go through the ‘Intuitive’ stage of cognitive development where they gain an understanding of differences. They can differentiate between sizes and colors of different bricks. However, during this stage, children still display what Piaget called ‘Egocentrism’, which means they cannot see things from another person’s viewpoint.
Phillips (1996) provides an entertaining example featuring a four-year-old boy. When questioned about having a brother, the boy confirms it. Yet, when inquired about his brother’s name, he confidently says “Jim”. However, when asked if Jim has a sibling, the boy denies it.
The child reaches the Concrete Operational Stage (7-11) where they can manipulate objects and comprehend them as long as they are visible or being held. The child can engage in activities such as counting, spelling, and reading. However, there is still a reliance on physical objects like fingers or toys for counting, indicating the need for visual aids. Additionally, the child is progressing towards a more objective viewpoint, demonstrating a decrease in egocentric thinking.
At the formal Operation Stage (11-15), children and adolescents have the ability to think hypothetically, reflecting on situations or experiences they may not have encountered. They can consider various outcomes to different situations. Additionally, adolescents at this stage can count without relying on objects and possess proficient reading and writing skills.
Freud (1856-1939) posited that personality, also known as the ‘Psychic Apparatus’, consisted of three components: the ‘ID’, the ‘EGO’, and the ‘SUPEREGO’. Freud further argued that these components were not associated with the brain or the physical self, but rather formed an energy system. In essence, the ID represents a ‘Psychic Energy’ governed by the ‘Pleasure Principle’. For instance, when instinct signals hunger, the ID strives to satisfy our needs, ensuring pleasure is experienced. Despite being present from birth until death without significant changes, as infants, we rely on others to interpret our cries and provide nourishment until we acquire the ability to feed ourselves. Nevertheless, the ID does exhibit reflex reactions such as blinking when something enters our eye, scratching when we itch, or rubbing against a bump. The primary purpose of the ID is to sustain fulfillment.
The Ego, which is governed by the ‘Reality Principle’, is the logical and rational part of the id that develops through social influences. It possesses the ability to control our Psychic energy by delaying needs. For example, in a traffic jam when hungry, most people would not immediately seek food but instead wait until reaching the next service station. On the other hand, infants lack this capability and will cry until someone feeds them. Additionally, the ego takes into account the feelings of others; for instance, it deems it inappropriate to break wind in a room full of people. The distinguishing factor between the id and the ego lies in their respective focuses: while the id solely concentrates on its own desires, the ego considers both when and how to achieve them.
The Superego, which is the conscience and moral component of the id, plays a crucial role in determining our actions. It serves as a guide for the ego, informing us when we have done something wrong and leading to feelings of guilt. Likewise, it also reinforces our self-esteem when we engage in virtuous behaviors.
To illustrate this point, let’s consider a situation where a young individual wishes to smoke inside their parents’ house. However, their parents are present, and if they were to be caught smoking indoors, it would result in anger from them. In such a scenario, the id desires to smoke a cigarette but the ego intervenes by advising the id to go outside. Simultaneously, the superego reminds both the id and ego that smoking anywhere is morally incorrect. Consequently, this causes the ego to experience guilt.
According to Freud, infants and young children have the ability to feel sexual pleasure and engage in what he calls “Infantile Sexuality.” It is important to note that when Freud uses the term “sexuality” in this particular context, he is not referring to sexual satisfaction similar to sexual intercourse. Instead, he exclusively uses the term for this specific purpose.
The idea of “Infantile Sexuality” pertains to the physical pleasure that infants and older children seek, such as enjoying back tickling or having their hair played with. This concept includes all types of sexual pleasure obtained from another individual, regardless of their gender. According to Freud, if parents fail to adequately provide this pleasure, it can result in frustration within the child’s id and ultimately lead to long-term consequences for the adult.
According to Freud, if the child is not adequately satisfied with pleasure during their stages of Psychosexual development, this would be the underlying cause of all future problems.
‘According to Freud, development is a multifaceted process involving both a predetermined biological schedule of change and the surrounding environment or social circumstances (Stevens, 1995). In order to comprehend the adult, it is necessary to examine their childhood, illustrating the concept that “the child is father to the man”.’
Gross, (R), ‘The Science of Mind and Behaviour’, (1996)
Psychosexual development stages: –
The oral stage, which occurs from 0-1 year, can be divided into two sub stages. The first substage is known as the ‘Receptive/Incorporative Substage’. During this stage, which lasts for the early few months, the child is highly dependent and passive. The child derives great pleasure from activities such as sucking, swallowing, and putting objects in their mouth. The mother’s breast plays a crucial role in providing pleasure for the child. Even in the absence of food, the child may suck on anything. After a few months, the child transitions into the ‘Biting/Aggressive Substage’. In this stage, the child begins to chew and bite objects. Additionally, it is during this stage that the child starts to express both love and hate towards the same object, typically their mother.
During the anal stage (1-3 years), the child experiences pleasure by focusing on their anal cavity. This stage can be further divided into two substages. During the ‘Expulsion’ substage, the child has the desire to pass faeces whenever and wherever it wants. They also learn that pleasure is obtained through parental praise, especially when they have successfully completed activities like potty training or staying dry throughout the night. However, in the later stages of the anal stage, known as ‘Retention’, parents are viewed as authority figures. This is because the child now experiences pleasure from retaining their faeces, although this is not often seen as a cause for parental praise.
The Phallic stage (3-5/6 years) is when a child becomes aware of their genitals. Boys find pleasure in their genitals, while girls do not until puberty. In this stage, boys need to learn to control their desire for their mother to avoid castration by their father. The fear of castration arises because boys begin masturbating at this stage and their father does not approve. Additionally, boys develop their first love for their mother, who belongs to their father. Consequently, the child learns to hide their desire for their mother to evade castration. On the other hand, girls fall in love with their fathers due to envy, as they lack a penis (known as “Penis Envy”). The girl believes that her mother has castrated her and feels inadequate as a result. Consequently, she turns her love towards her father and desires to have a baby instead. Meanwhile, boys fear the more powerful father who possesses what they desire, facing the threat of castration. Freud also believed that although girls think they have already been castrated, they also fear losing their mother’s love.
In the Latency Period, lasting approximately 5 to 6 years, children are influenced by their id’s sexual desires and consequently engage in play activities with same-gender peers to suppress these desires. Educational efforts teach them that they are not yet mature enough to participate in sexual activities.
Erikson (1902-194) proposed that human development is influenced by genetics, and individuals must have biological, social, and psychological readiness to progress through each stage of development. He viewed a child’s genes as a genetic timetable that dictates their developmental milestones.
According to Gross (1996), Erikson applied this principle to both social and psychological development. He argued that it is inherent to human nature to go through a predetermined series of psychosocial stages that are determined by genetics.
Erikson concluded that trust and mistrust are crucial to development in every personality, with an initial emphasis on trust-building during infancy. However, Erikson also proposed that the development of trust could be furthered in later stages of life, although it may prove more challenging.
The stage of Basic Trust Versus Mistrust (0-1) plays a critical role in a child’s trust development towards their parents (especially the mother) and the world. When a child is given love, including affection and cuddles, they will develop an adequate level of trust in the world. Conversely, inadequate care received by a child will result in mistrust. Trust enables the child to approach situations without fear, while mistrust leads to fear, suspicion, and potential withdrawal.
During the Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt stage (1-3), children start to become mobile, curious, and more independent. It is crucial for children to recognize themselves as distinct individuals from their parents, known as “Autonomy.” While ensuring the child’s safety and well-being, parents need to maintain a nurturing approach and establish a secure environment. Consistently belittling or making the child feel like a failure can result in feelings of shame and doubt about their abilities and surroundings. Allowing the child to attempt tasks independently and learn from mistakes fosters confidence and self-esteem. Conversely, constantly doing everything for them while criticizing their actions will have an adverse effect. If children do not receive praise or opportunities to develop independence at this stage, they may experience insecurity and seek attention.
During the initiative versus guilt stage (ages 3-6), children are actively exploring their abilities and acquiring new skills. Consequently, their curiosity and thirst for knowledge also escalate. It is important to foster this desire by encouraging them to ask questions and providing them with appropriate answers. Playtime holds significant value in the child’s cognitive and physical growth. If parents discourage or inhibit their child’s inclination to ask questions or engage in play, the child may develop a sense of guilt associated with their innate drive to learn.
During the Industry Versus Inferiority stage (ages 7-12), adults other than parents gain importance in a child’s development. The child becomes curious about how things work and are done. It is crucial to foster relationships with other children, as they allow for self-comparison and the development of individual identity. If the child is not provided with appropriate resources, support, direction, and encouragement, they may experience feelings of inferiority.
‘In the social jungle of human existence, feeling alive is impossible without a sense of ego identity’ – Erik Erikson (1963), Moonie, N (1995).
Self-concept refers to how an individual perceives their personality, including their Self-awareness of how others perceive them. The Self-concept encompasses three interconnected aspects: Self-image, Self-esteem, and the Ideal-self.
Self Image refers to how we perceive ourselves, including our physical, mental, and emotional aspects, whether positive or negative.
Kuhn & McPortland (1954) Gross p.519 propose that the self image can be divided into three categories.
‘Social Roles’ refer to the objective aspects of our self-image, such as being a student, employee, or partner. These aspects are confirmed by others and are definite in nature.
‘Personality Traits’: These are the aspects of our self-image that can be either confirmed or contradicted by the opinions or judgments of others.
‘Physical self’ refers to the physical aspects of our self-image, such as being tall, short, or thin.
‘Self-Esteem’: – ‘A personal judgement of worthiness, that is expressed in the attitudes the individual holds towards himself’. Coopersmith (1967) Gross p.520
The level of our self-esteem is determined by our perception of ourselves – whether we are satisfied with our appearance, actions, and overall identity. External factors can have a significant impact on our self-esteem, such as constant negative comments from parents, leading a young individual to develop low self-esteem and a belief in their own incompetence.
‘Ideal Self’: This term refers to the kind of person we desire others to perceive us as. Our self-image and, consequently, our self-esteem may be influenced by this notion. For instance, if we are naturally shy but want others to see us as outgoing and confident, we may find ourselves dissatisfied with our true selves. In my experience, most young people I have worked with tend to project an outgoing personality. However, upon getting to know them better, I discovered that many of them are actually shy. Additionally, some young individuals may display aggressive behavior as a defense mechanism to mask their fear of being labeled as weak or timid – especially among boys.
‘Symbolic Interactionism’, a theory introduced by James (1890), highlights the significance of interacting with the environment and perceiving things as symbols with meanings. The theory emphasizes the importance of language and the ability to understand others’ perspectives in shaping an individual’s self-concept. James also differentiated between the self-as-subject (I) and self-as-object (ME), stating that our perception of ourselves varies depending on who we interact with. Cooley (1902), influenced by James, concluded that our interactions with others shape our multiple selves. The reactions of others play a crucial role in understanding ourselves, known as ‘The Looking-Glass Self.’ Our concept of self is formed through the reactions, judgments, and opinions of parents, teachers, and friends. Each individual we interact with may have different reactions and opinions, which influence how we perceive ourselves. For instance, young people often modify their behavior, opinions, and appearance when interacting with different individuals.When alone, they are often pleasant and cooperative. However, when together in a group, some of them can become loud, outgoing, and even aggressive. Perhaps this is so they don’t appear “square” or “boring.” Interestingly, when others discuss them, they often complain about their behavior when they are in a group.
Argyle (1969, 1983) proposed that there are four primary factors that shape one’s self-concept:
The young people are always very conscious of others’ reactions, especially their peers, regarding new hairstyles, clothes, etc.
Comparison with others is particularly noticeable among brothers and sisters, especially during exam time when young people are intrigued by the results of others.
Social Roles: – An excellent example of this is three young women, two of whom are sisters who rarely agree with each other. They were having an argument when one of the girls, who is not a sister, attempted to strike one of the sisters. The other sister promptly intervened and exclaimed, ‘If you dare hit her, I’ll hit you….’ When I asked her later why she defended her sister despite their constant fights, she replied, ‘She’s my sister, so of course I’m going to stand up for her’.
Identification: – Skate boys, with their baseball caps, sweatshirts, baggy trousers, and trainers, can be observed. Likewise, trendy girls, with their glittery makeup, matching hairstyles, and similar clothes, can be seen. It seems that both groups have a desire to share something in common and to relate to one another.
Adolescence is a time of significant physical, mental, emotional, and social changes. Puberty brings about noticeable changes in the body and in sexual feelings and desires. I have worked with many young people between the ages of 11 and 18, each going through different stages of development. I have observed that young women, in particular, have a strong desire to impress both their female peers and the opposite sex. In every group I’ve been in, there’s always one person showing off their new trainers, album, or mobile phone! Argyle suggests that this need for identification is important. According to Coleman (1995), developing a sense of identity involves not only feeling distinct from others but also being aware of how others perceive oneself. The dramatic physical changes during adolescence significantly impact these aspects of identity and pose a major challenge for even the most well-adjusted young person. Therefore, the timing of the adolescent growth spurt can greatly influence their self-concept, especially their self-esteem (Gross, R., 1996).
