Ivan Pavlov
“Classical” conditioning, a type of learning in the field of behavioral studies, is known for its early exploration into the principles of learning and conditioning. It encompasses the activation of a learned reaction by a stimulus.
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian scientist born in 1849 and died in 1936, was famous for his expertise in classical conditioning. He made significant contributions to the field and had vast knowledge of physiology and natural science.
Pavlov’s experiments involved studying dogs’ salivation response to food. Regardless of whether he had food, the dogs would salivate when Pavlov entered the room. To train them, Pavlov consistently rang a bell while providing food. Consequently, the dogs learned to associate the bell sound with food and developed a conditioned response. According to Pavlov’s theory, an unconditioned stimulus naturally elicits an unconditioned response. Conversely, a neutral stimulus does not immediately produce a response. However, when this neutral stimulus becomes linked with an unconditioned stimulus, it transforms into a conditioned stimulus. The resulting response triggered by this conditioned stimulus is known as a conditioned response.
John Watson, a scientist, was influenced by Pavlov’s theory and utilized it in the examination of human behavior. According to Watson, human behavior and psychology could be elucidated through classical conditioning. In 1913, Watson released ‘Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,’ where he strongly asserted that experiences were accountable for variations in behavior among individuals.
John Broadus Watson
Watson observed that patterns of stimulus and response could help understand human behavior. He conducted the “Little Albert Experiment” to test how a 9-month-old boy named Albert reacted to different stimuli, including animals (rat, rabbit, monkey) and masks. Initially, Albert showed no fear or emotional response. However, when Watson introduced the sound of a hammer hitting a bar from behind Albert’s head, he strongly reacted with emotions like crying. This experiment was repeated seven times over seven weeks using the white rat and the loud sound of the hammer hitting the bar. Eventually, Albert associated the white rat with the loud noise and displayed fear by trying to move away from it. Through this experiment, Watson confirmed that conditioning had occurred in Albert.
Edward Thorndike, who was born in 1874, made significant contributions to the field of psychology. In the 19th century, psychology was gaining recognition within academic institutions. Thorndike’s interest in psychology began after studying William James’ “Principles of Psychology.” At Harvard University, he conducted research on children in a study called “Mind Reading,” but encountered obstacles that led him to shift his attention to animal experimentation. One notable experiment involved mazes and chicks. Following a period away from Harvard, Thorndike continued his academic career at Columbia University.
He started working with cats and dogs and created “puzzle boxes” to study and demonstrate the concept of associative processes with the cats, which he named “The Law of Effect”.
His main theories were based on his work with animals. He constructed his own device called “puzzle boxes”, which were an example of instrumental conditioning. The animals would respond, and if their response was rewarded, they would learn. However, if their response was not rewarded, it would gradually disappear over time. The animals were placed in the puzzle boxes and had to make specific responses, like pushing a button, in order to escape. In one experiment, hungry cats were placed in the puzzle boxes and their behavior was observed. The cats attempted to escape in order to obtain food.
The cat primarily relied on a “trial and error” approach for its learning process. As it successfully obtained food and learned how to escape quickly, this approach decreased gradually over time. The cat’s time in the box also decreased gradually. Thorndike concluded from his experiment that certain stimuli and responses were either associated or disassociated from each other, leading to the development of his law of effect.
Thorndike’s research revealed that animals acquire knowledge both through trial and error and by experiencing rewards and punishments. He also recognized that this behavior observed in cats can be generalized to all organisms. Thorndike’s groundbreaking work played a crucial role in the formation of Instrumental Learning, which later laid the foundation for psychologist Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s development of operant conditioning.
Skinner was born in Pennsylvania on March 20, 1904. Initially studying English at Hamilton College, he frequently contributed to the college newspaper. However, he discovered a dissatisfaction with the college environment and struggled to find his place among fellow students. Despite his initial aspiration to become a writer, Skinner departed from the college and eventually resumed studies at Harvard University, where he focused on psychology. In 1930, he obtained his masters degree and a year later received his doctorate. He dedicated himself to further studies as a research scientist until 1936.
Skinner’s theory of understanding behavior, referred to as Operant Conditioning, is rooted in the examination of causes and consequences. Influenced by Pavlov, Watson, and Thorndike’s works on classical conditioning and the “Law of Effect,” Skinner expanded upon their ideas by introducing reinforcement as a key concept. Through experiments utilizing a box resembling Thorndike’s “puzzle box” with rats and pigeons, Skinner observed that behaviors reinforced regularly were likely to be repeated. Conversely, behaviors not reinforced did not recur, indicating that learning occurs through behavior. He classified these animal responses into three categories.
Neutral operants are the animal’s response to the environment without any behavior change.
Reinforces: The animal’s response to the environment, which can be affected by positive or negative stimuli. In “The Skinner Box” experiment, Skinner showed how positive reinforcement works with rats. He placed a hungry rat in the box, which had a lever that the rat accidentally hit while exploring and discovered food nearby. With repetition, the rat learned to intentionally press the lever and obtain food, thus receiving rewards for its behavior.
Skinner provided further support for his concept of negative reinforcement by once again placing the rat in the box. This time, the box contained a live electric current. When the rat pressed the lever, the electric current would be shut off. Consequently, the rat rapidly learned to press the lever. This behavior was repeated by the rat, as it experienced negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcers involve removing a negative stimulus after an individual demonstrates positive behavior.
Punishment: According to Skinner, punishment works in the opposite way as reinforcement. Its purpose is to suppress or reduce behaviors. Similar to negative reinforcement, punishment can be effective by giving a negative stimulus like an electric shock after the rat performs a behavior or by taking away positive reinforcers such as food from the rat. Punishment can be classified as either negative or positive and serves as an opposing force to reinforcement.
Both positive and negative punishment can be utilized to discourage specific behaviors. Positive punishment consists of administering negative consequences to deter the behavior, while negative punishment involves taking away positive rewards in response to negative behavior. Regardless of the type of punishment employed, the ultimate objective is to decrease or eliminate the targeted behavior.
Operant conditioning is prevalent in modern society, with humans demonstrating high levels of sophistication in this area. For example, parents may use rewards such as chocolate or pocket money to reinforce good behavior in their children. Likewise, teachers may employ star charts or sticker charts to incentivize well-behaved conduct during lessons. As a result, children learn to behave appropriately during their educational sessions.
Classical conditioning, developed by Pavlov and Watson, is a technique utilized in behavioral studies to investigate the principles of learning and conditioning. It is referred to as classical because it was the initial form of conditioning studied. This type of conditioning entails an acquired response triggered by a particular stimulus. One renowned experiment demonstrating classical conditioning is Pavlov’s dogs, where he observed how the dogs salivated upon hearing the bell sound, which had been associated with food presentation and consequently became a conditioned stimulus.
Watson expanded on Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning, conducting his renowned experiment known as “The Little Albert.” In this experiment, Watson conditioned Albert by exposing him to a combination of animals and loud sounds.
In contemporary society, classical conditioning techniques remain in use. For instance, these techniques prove beneficial in addressing phobias and anxieties among individuals. In educational settings, teachers employ classical conditioning to foster a positive environment. One approach involves pairing a positive stimulus with a potentially challenging task, like group presentations. Consequently, students may experience reduced anxiety during such situations as a result of the positive stimulus, thus establishing an association.
Classical and operant conditioning differ mainly in the nature of the behavior (involuntary or voluntary) and how the conditioning is acquired (actively or passively).
Both classical and operant conditioning are utilized in today’s society by psychologists, teachers, parents, animal trainers, and business marketing companies.
