The psychosexual development theory, criticisms, conclusion, and references.
Introduction
This essay seeks to analyze Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development, concentrating on his concepts of the tri-partite structure of the human mind (the Id, Ego, and Super-Ego). It will also investigate the necessary Ego Defence mechanisms that are vital for human growth and survival. In addition, this essay will explore how Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development can aid in comprehending neurotic behavior among adults. Ultimately, a comprehensive evaluation will assess both the strengths and weaknesses of Freud’s theory.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), commonly referred to as the “Father of Psychoanalysis,” was a Neurologist, Medical Doctor, Psychologist, and influential thinker during the early twentieth century. His renowned theories revolved around the unconscious mind, repression, and the concept of the dynamic unconscious. According to Freud, human behavior is controlled by the unconscious mind, with the sexual drive being its primary motivation for individuals. He proposed that the human mind operates as a complex energy system. In his book titled The Liberal Imagination (1979), Trilling asserts that “The poets and philosophers before me discovered the unconscious; what I discovered was a scientific method to study it.
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This innovative idea represented a significant departure from previous beliefs and offered a therapeutic framework for comprehending human psychology’s evolution. It formed the basis for understanding and addressing mental disorders. Freud developed a profound interest in the unconscious mind, stating that “The unconscious is the central essence of the psyche; its inner nature remains as mysterious to us as the reality of the external world, and our conscious awareness of it is just as flawed as our perception of the external world through our senses.” (Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900)
According to Freud’s theory, the mind consists of three parts: Id, Ego, and Super-Ego. He posited that the mind is a dynamic energy-system with conscious and unconscious elements. The unconscious mind contains potent mental energy that impacts behavior. Through his research on hypnosis, Freud determined that the unconscious mind, driven by the “Id,” harbors inherent sexual desires that prioritize pleasure and self-gratification over societal norms.
The Ego, residing in the conscious mind and interacting with the external world, serves to fulfill basic needs without considering others. Its responsibility includes monitoring cause and effect, recognizing and evaluating consequences for actions. Emerging from tensions and interactions between the Id and the Super-ego, it acts as a conscious self. The main purpose of the Ego is to reconcile conflicting demands with external reality. According to Freud’s explanation in “The Ego and the Id” (1923), the ego is a modified part of the id influenced directly by the external world.
The Super-Ego, also known as the third part of the mind, develops as one becomes more aware of societal rules and conventions. It houses a social conscience that focuses on behaving in socially acceptable ways. It utilizes internalized control mechanisms from society, initially learned from parents, such as guilt and shame, to ensure an individual’s safety. A healthy mind effectively balances the desires of the Id with the moral compass of the Super-Ego, while responding effectively to any given situation. Conversely, an unhealthy mind dominated by the Id may exhibit strong impulses for instant gratification, destructive behaviors, and immorality. This behavior can result in conduct disorders during childhood and psychopathy in adulthood. If dominance lies with the Super-Ego instead, a person may be repressed, judgmental, and guided by rigid moral standards. In adulthood, this can lead to anxiety disorders, phobias,and obsessive thinking.
Ego Defences
Freud identified three types of anxiety. Neurotic anxiety occurs when fear of loss of control of the Id’s urges, results in punishment for inappropriate behaviour. Reality anxiety is a fear of external events which in extremis can lead to phobias. Lastly there is moral anxiety. This is a fear of violating those moral principles and values established by the Super-Ego. Neurosis also figured heavily in Freud’s psycho-analytical theory. He proposed that neurosis occurs when the Ego is unable to deal with desires that produce feelings of guilt and a sense of wrong. Through repression these thoughts manifest themselves through symptoms that have no physical dysfunction. The mental illness acts as a replacement for the guilt-ridden desires of the Id allowing the Ego to avoid the conflict between itself and the Id. Such symptoms, however, are worse than the conflict they set out to hide, not only stopping the individual from accepting their repressed desires but also causing them to become socially incapable of enjoying a happy and healthy life. Defence mechanisms are employed by the mind in order to protect the individual from threatening situations. These methods distort reality in a way that protects the Ego from distress, therefore allowing the person to cope with life’s experiences.
The behaviour of an individual is influenced by unconscious defence mechanisms, which can have a powerful impact. However, these mechanisms do not provide long-term solutions and can lead to additional psychological issues when overused. Freud recognized that most human behaviour can be considered “abnormal,” as people inherently suffer from unconscious conflicts. This means that experiencing anxiety is normal and being abnormal is actually normal. According to Freud’s theory, early childhood traumas are repressed into the unconscious mind. Children lack the necessary wisdom and experience to cope with confusing and distressing situations, so repression serves to protect their fragile Ego. However, these repressed memories manifest in dreams, irrational behaviour, and depression. Repression is intended to prevent harmful and distressing thoughts from becoming conscious or real. It can be so effective that individuals remain completely unaware of its existence. Freud suggested that the mind employs various defensive behaviours, such as projection, where individuals transfer their own unacceptable faults or desires onto someone else.
For example, an individual who experiences intense anger might instead project that anger onto another person. In extreme cases, this projection can lead to paranoia. Denial is another mechanism that allows the mind to avoid facing reality. By denying the existence of uncomfortable emotions, an individual can remain oblivious to the truth of a situation. The use of regression is another way individuals escape from reality. When they resort to child-like behaviors, which were effective in meeting their needs as children, they can navigate difficult situations. Often, individuals are not consciously aware that they are using these behaviors. Displacement occurs when emotions are redirected towards someone else, as criticizing oneself causes overwhelming anxiety. Sublimation serves as an outlet for unconscious drives and takes the form of socially acceptable behaviors, such as sports. Engaging in sports allows individuals to express aggression without being criticized; instead, they are praised for their competitiveness.
The Theory of Psychosexual Development, as developed by Freud, seeks to elucidate the different stages of human evolution as individuals journey through life. It posits that unresolved conflicts in later life can be traced back to specific stages. These stages are embodied on a physical level as the Id’s sexual energies are directed towards erogenous zones. Freud referred to this psychosexual energy as the life force or libido. The first stage is known as the Oral Stage, spanning from birth to 18 months.
During infancy, the mouth is the main source of pleasure. It is used for activities such as sucking food through breast or bottle feeding, as well as exploring the outside world through different tastes and textures. The primary conflict during this stage arises from the weaning process. Insufficient breastfeeding or excessive pleasure from breastfeeding can result in later “fixations.” An orally-receptive personality is dependent and trusting, while an orally-aggressive personality seeks dominance. Those who are fixated orally may find comfort and satisfaction in habits such as smoking, thumb-sucking, pencil chewing, overeating, and nail-biting. The Anal Stage (18-36 months)
During the anal stage, pleasure is found in expelling and/or withholding faeces. This period centers around gaining control over bowel and bladder movements, which represents growing independence. The issue of conflict emerges during toilet training, with Freud asserting that the parental approach is crucial for determining the outcome. Overly strict parenting, combined with shaming and humiliation, may result in an anal-retentive personality characterized by frugality, strictness, rigidity, and possessiveness. Conversely, overly lenient parenting can produce an anal-expulsive character who is messy, thoughtless, and wasteful. The next stage is the Phallic stage (3-6 years).
During this stage, children start to focus on their genital areas and become more aware of the opposite gender parent. The resolution of this stage is achieved when a deeper bond is formed with the same gender parent. However, a lack of identification with an adult can lead to super-ego fixations. Fixations at this stage result in the development of a phallic personality type, characterized by self-assurance, vanity, and impulsivity. Conflicts during this period may lead to a crisis of sexual identity and resentment towards authority figures. In male children, the Oedipus complex arises as an unconscious rivalry with the father for the mother’s attention. This conflict can only be resolved when the desire to possess the mother is replaced by identification with the father. Female children, on the other hand, experience penis envy during this time. The resolution occurs when a desire to reproduce becomes more dominant. This stage is known as the Latency Stage (6 years – Puberty).
During the latency stage of sexual development, both male and female children experience minimal or no sexual growth. This period is primarily dedicated to acquiring social and communication skills. The subsequent stage, known as the genital stage, occurs during puberty.
This phase begins during puberty and persists throughout an individual’s lifetime. It brings forth a heightened inclination towards the opposite sex, as well as a deeper comprehension of the wider community and one’s own role in society. The significance of compassion and empathy increases, as the person endeavors to harmonize societal needs with their own.
Criticisms
The work of Freud revolutionized the understanding of uncommon or abnormal behaviors. It completely transformed the perception of sexuality, making it a subject that can be openly discussed, considered a normal aspect of a balanced and content life. Additionally, the psychodynamic approach brought attention to the significance of childhood experiences and the unconscious mind. Despite the significant impact of Freud’s theories, they are subject to numerous criticisms. While many psychologists have embraced his ideas, there have been extensive modifications and revisions of his original perspectives.
Carl G. Jung (1875 –1961), a pupil of Freud’s, challenged some elements of his theories, particularly the emphasis on sexuality. Instead, Jung developed his own theories, known as analytical psychology.
Jung disagreed with Freud’s notion that therapy aimed to bring the unconscious into consciousness. Interestingly, he held this objective in his work as a theorist. Yet, he portrayed the unconscious as quite unpleasant: a place full of intense desires, perverse cravings, and dark memories that continue to haunt us. Personally, I wouldn’t want to bring such aspects into consciousness!
Jung C.G Mysterium Coniunctionis (1955-56)
Erich Fromm (1900 – 1980) also rejected Freud’s belief that the drives of humans are only biological. Fromm emphasized the importance of freedom of choice and free will in development, as he recognized that conflicts emerged due to the fear and uncertainty associated with this freedom. He expressed this viewpoint:
Freedom is the necessary condition for any form of growth. Fromm E. Escape from Freedom (1941) Feminists criticize Freud’s work, primarily due to the sexist nature of his ideas. Neo-Freudian Karen Horney suggested that instead of envying penises, girls actually develop envy for power, while men develop envy for wombs and vaginas because they cannot bear children. Pulitzer Prize-winner Natalie Angier expressed her opinion on Freud’s concept of penis envy by stating, “Women never bought Freud’s idea of penis envy: who would want a shotgun when you can have an automatic?” Angier N. Woman: An Intimate Geography (1999)
In conclusion,
Freud revolutionized the understanding of the psyche and his model popularized talking therapy as a valid treatment method. Many other thinkers, including Jung, Adler, and Fromm, were heavily influenced by his work. Psychoanalysis aims to bring repressed and traumatic memories to the forefront of consciousness. It also provides insight into the underlying causes of abnormal behavior, such as conflicts and anxieties. Furthermore, psychoanalysis can often alleviate neurotic symptoms like phobias and anxiety. Freud’s concept of psycho-dynamism demonstrates that evidence can be derived from free association, dreams, slips of the tongue, and transference to interpret thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that are strongly influenced by unconscious factors.
The theory is particularly appealing due to its ability to provide long-awaited causal explanations for conditions that have caused significant human suffering. Scientifically, the validity of Freud’s psychosexual development theory is questioned because genuine scientific theories must be testable and falsifiable. This has sparked controversy, as many practitioners criticize the theory for being based on case studies rather than empirical research. However, it should be noted that Freud was working in a time when social science methodology was non-existent, limiting and biasing his “research.” Contemporary research has shown that the stages of oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital traits are observable but not necessarily fixed stages of childhood or adult personality traits derived from childhood experiences. Without experimental evidence, Freudian theories may appear weak. Critics argue that Freud’s models are derived from a homogenous sample group, primarily upper-class Austrian women in the sexually repressed society of the late 19th century. This has resulted in much debate and speculation.The text suggests that Freud’s clinic revealed a high occurrence of child sexual abuse, specifically among young women. Freud initially proposed a theory regarding the connection between neuroses and sexual abuse, but faced strong opposition and subsequently retracted it. He then introduced the theory of the unconscious as a replacement.
Although Freud’s contributions to psychology are highly regarded and some of his theories are still influential today, many of his ideas have been discredited over time. One of the challenges in evaluating the effectiveness of psychoanalytic treatment is defining what constitutes a cure versus symptom alleviation. Typically, the efficiency of a treatment method is assessed through clinical tests with a control group. Based on these tests, it has been found that the proportion of patients who benefit from psychoanalytic treatment is not significantly different from those who recover naturally or through other interventions. Therefore, the question of whether psychoanalysis is an effective therapy remains contentious and unresolved. Hence, I propose that relying solely on psychoanalysis as a model for understanding a client’s issue may not be advisable.
References
Freud, S. The interpretation of Dreams (1900) (Translation A.A Brill 1913) New York; Macmillan.
Freud, S. The Ego and the Id (1923) The Hogarth Press Ltd. London, 1949.
Trilling, L. The Liberal Imagination. Essays on Literature and Society (1979) Re-print of 1950 ed. New York; Harcourt.
Jung, C. G. (1955–56). The Conjunction, Mysterium Coniunctionis, Collected Works, XIV, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Angier, Natalie. Women: An Intimate Geography (1999) Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Fromm, E. Escape from Freedom (1994) Henry Holt & Company Inc; Owl Book ed.
