Manifest Destiny served as both a moral justification for American Expansion and a vision for the future of an enlarged United States. However, it also had its darker side, as it sometimes provided flimsy justifications for selfish greed and imperial ambition. This ideology promoted the belief that America had a God-given right or destiny to expand its borders, spanning from ‘sea to shining sea.’ People were motivated to move west for a variety of reasons, including seeking adventure, acquiring new land, searching for wealth, starting a new life, and various other personal motivations.
The Federal government encouraged this because new territories could be added to the US. This was called Manifest Destiny, the belief that Americans were entitled and ordained by God to occupy all of North America. If disputed areas in the West such as Texas, Oregon and New Mexico territories could be settled and have a majority of Americans there, then these places could and would become US property by default. The Industrial Revolution just added to this push West by the influx of immigrants to America thus many people moved West to get away from this influx.
Tradesmen and trappers served as explorers on behalf of the empire, and an unprotected boundary posed no obstacle to their entry into sparsely populated and minimally governed Mexican borderlands. Manifest Destiny, a concept that greatly influenced American policy in the 1800s, acted as the driving force behind the rapid westward expansion of America from the East. This idea was heavily promoted in newspapers, posters, and other means of communication. Although Manifest Destiny was not an official government policy, it did result in the enactment of legislation such as the Homestead Act, which encouraged colonization and territorial acquisition in the West.
It also had a significant impact on American thinking. The concept originated in 1845 from John O’Sullivan, an editor of an American newspaper who was discussing the potential annexation of Texas. O’Sullivan proclaimed that it was America’s “manifest destiny to overspread the continent.” The editorial proposed that through expansion, the United States could become a recognized political and social force. O’Sullivan contended that America had been specifically designated for the mission of expanding westward, removing the wilderness, and creating a civilized society.
The process of the United States expanding westward did not start with Manifest Destiny, but rather with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. This acquisition increased the country’s territory by 23%. The government recognized the benefits of acquiring more land, such as potential political power. Consequently, they actively pursued an aggressive expansion policy. Manifest Destiny was just one aspect of this larger pursuit, but it resonated with the public imagination.
O’Sullivan’s editorial on Manifest Destiny intensified the situation by introducing a memorable phrase. Multiple government campaigns depicted the attractions of the West to potential settlers and publicized initiatives that facilitated the acquisition and ownership of land in the region. The unearthing of valuable minerals, including gold, prompted a wave of Easterners to migrate Westward, driven by their conviction in their entitlement and responsibility to expand. Manifest Destiny also guided American political endeavors abroad. Although the term lost its political significance in the early 1900s, the extensive influence of Manifest Destiny remained evident.
The concept of Manifest Destiny, as emphasized in the editorial, had a significant influence on American foreign policy in the twentieth century. This era is commonly known as “Manifest Destiny” among historians, referring to the rapid expansion from the east coast to the west coast through annexation of Western territories. Various routes such as roads, canals, and trails facilitated the journey for settlers heading westward and provided access to new lands. The Erie Canal serves as an notable example.
Canals had proven their worth in Europe as a means of transportation for cargo and people, and some Americans recognized their potential to greatly improve the United States. As Ohio became a state in the early 1800s, it became evident that a land route westward was necessary. This led to the proposal of the National Road as the first federal highway. In the 1840s, thousands of settlers traveled westward on the Oregon Trail, which started in Independence, Missouri. Typically, these journeys began in spring to avoid traveling during winter.
The primary means of transportation for settlers heading to Oregon and California was a basic farm wagon with a canopy, pulled by a team of oxen (preferable to horses and mules). Later, upon the advice of Brigham Young, numerous Mormon settlers used handcarts to make the journey to Utah. Regardless of the method, all settlers faced the harsh challenge of scarce water and fuel for fires throughout the trip. In areas without trees, buffalo chips were commonly used as fuel. Tragically, up to one-tenth of the settlers who embarked on the journey perished, with most succumbing to diseases like cholera.
Although conflicts with Native Americans defending their homelands were not common, wagon trains still feared them during the journey to California and Oregon. However, many saw this journey as an opportunity to settle in these new territories. In 1845, the United States annexed and admitted Texas as its 28th state. This caused a border dispute with Mexico, leading to the Mexican-American War. As a result of this war, additional land known as the Mexican Cession of 1848 was acquired by expanding U.S. borders all the way to the Pacific Ocean.
Within this newly acquired territory, Texas claimed parts of present-day Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Texas itself (as it was already part of Texas), Wyoming, Utah, and Oklahoma. The disagreement between Texas,the federal government,and New Mexico Territory was resolved through the Compromise of 1850.
This compromise agreement integrated a significant portion of these lands into other U.S. territories whilethe federal government assumed a $10 million debt owed bytheTexas Republic.
Immigrants from the Southern United States began migrating to Mexican Texas in the early 1820s, as requested by the Mexican government to populate the sparsely inhabited lands in the north. As time went on, these Anglo-American immigrants became the majority in Texas and grew unhappy with Mexican governance. In 1824, Texas became a part of Coahuila y Tejas, a Mexican state that introduced a gradual emancipation plan for slaves in 1827. This angered many slaveholding settlers who had relocated from the South to Texas.
Texas, for various reasons, declared independence from Mexico, which led to a war. The conflict concluded in 1836 and Sam Houston was elected as the Republic of Texas’s inaugural president. Houston supported annexation to the United States. In November 1844, James K. Polk, a Democrat who strongly advocated for territorial expansion, became president with a clear objective to acquire both the Republic of Texas and Oregon Country.
After the election, the Tyler administration consulted with President-elect Polk and realized that public opinion favored annexation. They decided to accomplish this through a joint resolution, which stated that Texas would be admitted as a state if it approved annexation by January 1, 1846. The resolution also allowed Texas to split into four additional states and transferred possession of the Republic’s public land to Texas upon admission. On February 26, 1845, six days before Polk’s inauguration, Congress passed the joint resolution.
In Texas, Andrew Jackson Donelson, who was both the American charge d’affaires and the nephew of former president Andrew Jackson, presented the American resolution to President Anson Jones. The Texan Congress supported the offer for annexation on July 4, 1845, with only one opposing vote and started working on a state constitution. On October 13, 1845, the people of Texas approved the new constitution and annexation ordinance. President Polk then officially signed the documents on December 29, 1845 to integrate Texas into the United States.
The Mexican-American War had two main causes: The U.S. desired territorial expansion across North America up to the Pacific Ocean which led to conflicts with neighboring countries like Canada, Oregon, Mexico as well as Native Americans. Additionally, the Texas War of Independence and subsequent annexation also played a significant role in triggering this war.
Annexation had significant consequences. The United States gained control over a large portion of Mexico, including California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. This resulted in President Santa Anna losing power in Mexico. U.S. General Zachary “Old Rough and Ready” Taylor used his war hero status to secure the presidency in 1848. The relationship between the United States and Mexico remained tense for several years after the war, leading to multiple military clashes along the border.
Furthermore, this conflict provided valuable training for future leaders of both the Northern and Southern armies during the impending American Civil War.
