Children begin developing oral language skills at an early age, as nearly every sound they make serves as a form of communication. As they grow, children observe and practice language, which subsequently impacts their literacy development. Research suggests that students who struggle with early speech communication skills are at risk for reading difficulties and subsequently writing challenges (Montgomery, 1998). Consequently, the development of oral language plays a crucial role in the literacy development of emergent readers. This paper will analyze and discuss the impact of language development on emergent readers using dialog from a personal interview with a 3-year-old named Gianna. We will use Gianna’s dialog as examples and the foundation for our analysis of language development and its effects on emergent readers. Dworetzky (1996) defines language as a system of signs and symbols that follows grammatical rules for arranging those signs and symbols. Additionally, language allows for the creation of new instructions within its grammar structure (p. 226-227).
Now, more than ever, there is a greater focus on studying and evaluating oral language. Keenan et. al. (1997) acknowledges that recognizing spoken language as an essential aspect of learning in all subjects has only recently become apparent, making the assessment of its performance necessary. This is one reason why assessing oral language is crucial. Salvia and Ysseldyke (1998) outline two main reasons for conducting this type of assessment. Firstly, having well-developed language abilities is desirable in and of itself (p. 539). This implies that individuals should possess the skills to engage in conversations and effectively communicate thoughts, emotions, and feelings. Secondly, various language processes and skills are thought to underlie subsequent development. For instance, research reveals a correlation between difficulties in oral language and the prevalence of behavior disorders (Salvia et. al., 1998, p. 539). However, timely identification of these oral-language disorders can positively impact a child’s academic growth.
Various viewpoints exist regarding oral language, with language theorists examining different structural aspects and explanatory mechanisms. Recent focus has shifted towards descriptive analyses of structure. According to Salvia et.al. (1998), language can be defined as a code for communicating ideas. Language development comprises multiple stages, each consisting of several components. During the One-Word stage, children enhance their ability to name objects. Naming, as highlighted by Dworetzky (1996), represents a unique development wherein children identify and label objects, providing inherent reinforcement and gratification exclusive to humans. Gianna demonstrates her naming skills by pointing at a dog and naming it “Simon,” as well as accurately identifying pictures in a coloring book, such as a “rocket” and “Winnie da Pooh” (DiNobile, 1998). Naming skills bear resemblance to logographic understanding, which can benefit emergent readers. For example, a child may not read the word “McDonald’s,” but can recognize its sign on a highway. As mentioned by Vacca et.al. (1995), children encounter written language throughout their environment – from books, supermarkets, and department stores to fast-food restaurants, television, signs, and various printed materials like TV listings or product labels. Print pervades all aspects of life (p.73).Children can comprehend familiar words even without knowing how to read.
Phones or phonemes, which are the “smallest units of speech,” possess meanings even though they do not constitute complete words (Dworetzky, 1996). Although Gianna is able to speak full words, she sometimes uses phonemes in her speech. For instance, instead of saying “could” or “can,” she says “ca.” Additionally, she substitutes “da” for “that’s,” “u” for “use,” and “wa” for “what” (DiNobile, 1998).
Many teachers use phonics-based instruction to teach students how to read. According to Foorman (1995), there are two common approaches to teaching phonics: synthetic phonics, which involves segmenting and blending letter sounds in a word, and analytic phonics, which focuses on recognizing common spelling patterns in a word. Pronunciation is also an important aspect of language development. Gianna demonstrates proficiency in pronouncing words like “space rocket,” “color,” and “mother.” However, she does mispronounce certain words such as “favorite” (“favwit”), “this” (“dis”), “that” (“dat”), and “broke” (“bwoke”) (DiNobile, 1998). These occasional mispronunciations do not indicate regression but rather suggest that Gianna has not fully mastered pronunciation yet. Once children have acquired reading skills, developing fluency becomes crucial. Vacca et al. (1995) define fluency as the ability to read easily and well, performing tasks with ease and proficiency (p.198). Pronunciation plays a vital role in fluency because readers must be able to pronounce words quickly and accurately for fluent reading.
Children learn syntax after acquiring pronunciation skills. Syntax refers to the specific word order in a sentence, including the rules for arranging words (Salvia et.al., 1998, p.536). Gianna understands this concept, as most of her sentences exhibit proper syntax. For example, she says “I like to touch him” and “Look, now I’m using yellow” (DiNobile, 1998). These examples demonstrate grammatically correct syntax. The same principle applies to reading, where students comprehend sentences in books because they are structured similarly to spoken language. “Readers use their knowledge of the meaningful arrangement of words in sentences to construct meaning from text” (Vacca et.al., 1995, p.26). For instance, a sentence like “my book is green” makes sense, whereas “green book is my” would not be understandable to the reader. In the two-word stage of language development (occurring between 18 and 20 months of age), children begin using two-word statements. This stage helps them learn how language expresses concepts and facilitates communication with others (Dworetzky, 1996, p.241). There are four types of two-word phrases: locating or naming something, demanding or desiring something, indicating possession, and questioning something.According to Dworetzky (1996, p.241), a few examples of telegraphic speech are “there book,” “more milk,” my shoe,” and “where ball.” The three-word stage is not present in children’s language development. After the two-word stage, children progress to using telegraphic speech, where they create many short sentences without function words. Instead of saying “the doggie is playing now,” a child would say “doggie play now,” which is a typical example of telegraphic speech.
Grammatical morphemes, which are words or parts of words that contribute meaning to a sentence, are important in language development. Typically, children acquire these morphemes between the ages of 2 and 5 years (Dworetzky, 1996, p.242). Examples of grammatical morphemes include conjunctions, prepositions, suffixes, and prefixes. In Dworetzky’s book, Table 8.2 provides a list of Fourteen English Grammatical Morphemes. The first one is Present Progressive – words ending in -ing that indicate an ongoing process. For example, Gianna says “I’m using pink” and “I’m making da windows brown” (DiNobile, 1998). The second and third morphemes are Prepositions like “in” or “on,” which indicate containment or support. Gianna mentions “You used browm on yer hand” (DiNobile, 1998).
The fourth grammatical morpheme is the use of Plural words. These words end in -s or -es and show number or amount. Gianna says, “I know awl my colors, silly goose” (DiNobile, 1998). The fifth one is Past Irregular. Irregular verbs such as “went” are used to tell of an event that happened earlier in time relative to the time of speaking. She says, “My mother taught me when I was a lille girl” (DiNobile, 1998). The sixth one is the use of Possessives. The sentences contain nouns which end in -s. This shows ownership or possession. For example, “This is Bobby’s book.” Gianna did not use possession in the transcribed dialog. The seventh grammatical morpheme is Uncontractible Copula be. These sentences contain words such as “are” and “was” and show number or something that took place earlier in time. Gianna says, “My mother taught me when I was a lille girl” (DiNobile, 1998). The eighth one is the use of Articles. Articles are words like “a” and “the.” She says, “A space rocket” (DiNobile, 1998). Number nine is Past Regular. These verbs end in -ed and show past tense. Gianna says, “You used browm on yer hand” (DiNobile, 1998).
The following morphemes demonstrate number or past events: Third Person Regular, Third Person Irregular, and Uncontractible Auxiliary. In her dialogue, Gianna did not utilize any of these examples. The thirteenth morpheme is the Contractible Copula be. These words end in -s or -re and indicate number or past events. Gianna states, “That’s a wrock” and “Dat’s Winnie da Pooh” (DiNobile, 1998). The final morpheme is the Contractible Auxiliary be. These words also end in -s or-re and convey number, ongoing processes, or past events. Gianna says, “Now he’s gonna look like a girl” (DiNobile, 1998). These preceding examples illustrate that Gianna correctly employs most of the 14 grammatical morphemes.
Gianna, at just 3 years old, is impressively progressing in her language development. She has acquired naming skills, phonemes, pronunciation, syntactic skills, and grammatical morphemes. Though there is still room for improvement, she consistently learns and grows. A renowned language expert emphasizes the importance of teachers focusing on the content of the message, interpersonal communication aspects, and the textual aspect including grammar and vocabulary. Grammar and language usage are widely recognized as crucial components to teach and assess in classrooms (Keenan et. al., 1997). When Gianna starts school, it’s highly likely that she will excel in oral language development and literary skills due to her advanced abilities at such a young age.
There are numerous applications for spoken language. During a child’s early years, they discover the functionalities of language. They understand that language is a tool for communicating and comprehending in interactions with others in their environment (Vacca et.al., 1995, p.26). According to Frank Smith, there are ten uses of language, each serving a different purpose. The first is instrumental, which involves using language to obtain something one desires, such as saying “I want.” The second is regulatory, which is utilized to control the actions, feelings, or speech of others, as seen in the phrase “Do as I say.” The third is interactional and is employed to establish one’s position in comparison to others, for instance saying “You and I are in this room.” The fourth use is personal and expresses individuality, like saying “here I am.” The fifth use is heuristic and involves using language to seek or test knowledge with inquiries such as “Tell me why.” The sixth use is imaginative and is used for creating imaginary scenarios, as in the expression “let’s pretend.” The seventh use is representational and is employed to convey information, as depicted in the sentence “I have something to tell you.” The eighth use is divertive and refers to humor or puzzles, with phrases like “enjoy this” or “listen to this.” The ninth use can be termed authoritative or contractual and involves language related to laws, contracts, or statements that must be followed precisely, as can be seen in the phrase “it must be done this way.” Lastly, the tenth use is called perpetuating and involves using language for documentation purposes such as records, notes, or diaries.Children quickly recognize the various uses and meanings of language (Vacca et.al., 1995, p.26-27). They understand that language carries great significance.
There are five phases of literacy development. The first phase is the awareness and exploration phase where children explore their environment, listen to and talk about stories, and understand the relationship between printed words and the story itself. They also engage in pretend-reading. The second phase, known as the experimental phase, begins when children start kindergarten. During this phase, children recognize letters and their sounds, become familiar with rhyming, and start writing letters and high frequency words. The early reading and writing phase typically occurs in first grade. Children at this stage can read simple stories and write about topics they have prior knowledge of and strong feelings towards. They also become aware of punctuation and capitalization. The transitional reading and writing phase, which takes place in second grade, is the fourth phase. Here, children develop more complex reading and writing skills, while also improving fluency.
The independent and productive phase is the final stage of literacy development, which continues throughout one’s life. According to Vacca et. al. (1995, p.72), the third grade is where the journey towards independent and productive learning begins. Even as adults, individuals continue to advance and enhance their reading and writing abilities.
It is crucial to have a literate environment for emergent readers, as stated by Vacca et.al. (1995): “Children learn to become more fluent in an environment that supports oral reading as communication” (p.201). Family interaction can be a valuable tool for emergent readers, but unfortunately, some children lack literacy skills due to intergenerational illiteracy. However, if the parents are literate, they should provide a literate atmosphere for their young children. Research by Senechal (1998) suggests that the home environment plays a significant role in enhancing oral and written language development, with storybook reading receiving the most attention among parent-child literacy activities. Storybook reading offers several benefits, such as acquiring word knowledge and novel vocabulary, increasing familiarity with written language syntax, and raising awareness of written letters and words. When parents read to their children, they give them a head start for school and encourage their child’s reading development. Overall, oral language development and emergent literacy are interconnected and intertwined in various aspects.The connection between the development of oral language and reading skills may not be immediately apparent, but once you consider each aspect, it becomes undeniable. Traditionally, educators believed that oral language development came before other forms of literacy, especially formal writing. However, recent research suggests that all forms of literacy – including reading, writing, speaking, listening, and thinking – develop concurrently in children and reinforce each other throughout their schooling years (Montgomery, 1998). It is crucial for children to have well-developed oral language and vocabulary because these skills are essential when they start school. The importance of spoken language as a prerequisite for learning in all subjects has been recognized, making the assessment of performance in this area necessary (Keenan et.al., 1997).
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Sylvia, J., & Ysseldyke, J.E. (1998). Assessment. (7th Ed.). Princeton, NJ: Houghton Mifflen Company.
Vacca, J.L. Vacca., R.T. ; Gove, M.K (1995). Reading and Learning to Read, 3rd Ed. New York: Harpers Collins Publishers, Inc.
