Individualism refers to a moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that prioritizes the moral value of each individual. Advocates of individualism emphasize independence and self-reliance while valuing the pursuit of personal goals and desires. They maintain that an individual’s interests should take precedence over those of the state or any social group. Simultaneously, they reject any form of interference from society or institutions such as government regarding personal interests.
Individualism emphasizes the importance of the individual in the quest for freedom, placing them at the forefront. It affirms that individuals possess the right to both freedom and self-actualization. An individualist actively participates in society either by pursuing personal interests or asserting their prerogative to prioritize personal needs over societal ones.
The individualist rejects any philosophy that requires sacrificing the self-interest of individuals for social causes. However, Jean-Jacques Rousseau argues that his concept of the “general will” in the “social contract” does not simply aggregate individual wills, but actually benefits individuals. Rousseau believes that being bound by the law is advantageous for individuals because disregarding it reflects ignorance and submission to passions instead of desired autonomy based on reason.
According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, individualists mainly prioritize safeguarding personal independence from social institutions such as the state or religious morality. Individualism is a political and social philosophy that highlights the moral importance of the individual. Although the meaning of individualism varied across different countries, these meanings have largely come together. Following the turmoil of the French Revolution, Francesco associated individualism with factors that led to societal breakdown, chaos, and prioritizing individual interests over collective ones.
The negative connotation of the term was employed by different political factions in France, such as reactionaries, nationalists, conservatives, liberals, and socialists. Despite their diverse perspectives on a potential and desirable social order, they all used the term negatively. In Germany, there was a promotion of worshiping individual genius through the concepts of individual uniqueness (Instigate) and self-realization, which aligned with the Romantic notion of individuality. Eventually, these ideas were incorporated into an organic theory of national community.
This perspective suggests that the State and society are not created by humans through a social contract, but instead they are separate and self-contained cultural entities. In England, individualism encompassed religious nonconformity (such as not adhering to the Church of England) and different forms of economic liberalism, ranging from total laissez-faire to moderate state intervention.
In the 19th century, American individualism emerged as a key element of the United States’ ideology. It was influenced by New England Puritanism, Jeffersonian beliefs, and the philosophy of natural rights. Initially, American individualism was idealistic and comprehensive in nature. However, when combined with social Darwinism’s emphasis on survival of the fittest, it took on a more resilient stance. The concept of “rugged individualism,” promoted by Herbert Hoover during his 1928 presidential campaign, was associated with treasured American values like personal freedom, capitalism, and limited government.
According to James Bryce, the British ambassador to the United States from 1907 to 1913, Americans have always held individualism, enterprise, and personal freedom in high regard. In his book The American Commonwealth (1888), Bryce referred to these qualities as the most cherished and unique traits of Americans. Alexis De Destructive, a French aristocratic political philosopher from the 19th century, saw individualism as a type of moderate selfishness that led individuals to prioritize their own immediate circle of family and friends.
Observing the workings of the American democratic tradition for Democracy in America (1835-40), Destructive noted that individualism led citizens to isolate themselves from others and associate only with their family and friends. This weakened the virtues of public life, which could be counteracted by civic virtue and association. According to Swiss historian Jacob Bureaucrat (1 818-97), individualism represented a cult of privacy. This, coupled with the growth of self-assertion, spurred the highest individual development seen during the European Renaissance.
The categorization of individualism by French sociologist ?mile Druthers (1858-1917) consists of two types: the utilitarian egoism represented by Herbert Spencer, who viewed society as a mere tool for production and exchange, and the rationalism exemplified by Emmanuel Kant, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen during the French Revolution. These proponents prioritize reason and free inquiry. F.A. Hayes (1899-1992), an Austrian economist who favored market processes and distrusted state intervention, made a distinction between “false” and “true” individualism. False individualism can be mainly found in French and other continental European writings. It is characterized by an excessive belief in individual reason and social planning, often leading to modern socialism. On the other hand, true individualism had advocates such as John.
Locke, Bernard De Mandible, David Home, Adam Ferguson, Adam Smith, and Edmund Burke, who all lived during the 17th to 18th centuries, argued that the combined efforts of free individuals can result in achievements that surpass their individual intelligence. They also acknowledged the necessity for individuals to surrender to the enigmatic forces of society. Individualism also encompasses various inquiries about the connection between groups and individuals.
The question at hand concerns the explanation of various aspects of group behavior, social processes, and historical events. Methodological individualism, advocated by Karl Popper, asserts that any explanation of these phenomena must ultimately rely on facts about individuals – their beliefs, desires, and actions.
The view sometimes referred to as ontological individualism suggests that social or historical groups, processes, and events are simply combinations of individuals and their actions. Methodological individualism rejects explanations that rely on social factors that cannot be explained on an individual level. This can be seen in Deuterium’s analysis of varying suicide rates based on levels of social integration, as well as the explanation of protest movements based on the structure of political opportunities.
Ontological individualism differs from other perspectives that consider institutions and collectives as secondary entities. For example, some may view corporations or states as acting independently, while others emphasize bureaucratic roles, rules, or social groups as separate from individuals but influencing their actions. Another aspect of the discussion on individualism is how we should understand the worth and value of goods in our moral and political lives.
Some theorists, known as atomics, argue that there are no goods that are inherently common or communal. They believe that there are only individual goods that are obtained by individuals. From this viewpoint, morality and politics are tools used by each individual to obtain these goods for themselves. Thomas Hobbes’ political philosophy is an example of this perspective, as it sees political authority as stemming from a hypothetical “contract” between individuals.
Another concept often observed in economics and related social sciences is the notion that most social institutions and relationships are most effectively viewed through the lens of self-interest. The concept of individualism, which promotes personal satisfaction and control over one’s own surroundings while disregarding public participation and communal bonds, has long received criticism from various perspectives including both conservative and liberal viewpoints as well as religious and non-religious viewpoints.
Advocates of communitarianism strongly criticize individualism, viewing it as synonymous with narcissism and selfishness. Similarly, proponents of “republican” political thought, which advocates power division for control, see individualism as detrimental to both the state and democratic institutions as it hinders citizen support and active involvement.
In modern Western societies, individualism has often been seen as a distinguishing factor from non-Western ones like traditional India and China. These non-Western societies are said to prioritize the community or nation over the individual. Additionally, an individual’s role in political and economic aspects of their community is heavily influenced by their class or caste membership.
