ANCIENT PERSIAN CULTURE
(Anthropology)
I. Introduction:
Persia refers to the region stretching over the Iranian plateau and beyond. Its ancient and colorful history points to a powerful series of empires, the Achaemenid dynasty being the earliest considered entity of the Persian Empire, which was composed of a united Aryan kingdom that originated in the region now known as Pars province of Iran. Although Persia’s earliest known kingdom was the proto-Elamite Empire and followed by the Medes, the Achaemenid Empire is usually the earliest to be called “Persian”, and it was during this period that the country of Iran owes its formation.
The name ‘Persia’ has been used by the West to refer to the nation of Iran, its ancient empires, or people. It is taken from Iran’s maritime province called ‘Fars’ or Parsa in Old Persian language. The word means “above reproach”.
The word ‘Persia’ is the Latinized form which other European nations adapted, until March 21, 1935 when Reza Shah Pahlavi formally asked the international community to call their country as Iran. This was the term used by the Aryan tribes who formed the country as Iran. This was the term used by the Aryan tribes who formed the country during the Achaemenid period. There were protests coming from some Persian scholars upon this major change, alleging that changing the name separates a country from its past and identity. They further argued that Westerners confuse the name Iran with Iraq. In order to arrive at a compromise, his son Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi announced in 1959 that both Persia and Iran can be used interchangeably.
Iran possesses one of the world’s oldest continuous major civilizations. Its history covers thousands of years from the ancient civilization on the Iranian plateau, Mannaeans civilization in Azerbaijan, Shahri-i-Sokhta (Burned City) in Zabol and ancient kingdom of Jiroft. This was followed by the kingdom of Elam and the Achaemenid, Parthian, Sassanian and the subsequent Empires up to modern Islamic Republic of Iran.
II. History:
The early history of man in Iran dates back beyond the Neolithic period. Archeological findings place Persia’s prehistory about 100,000 years ago. Progress and development came when people began to domesticate animals and plant wheat and barley. Consequently, the number of settled communities increased, and handmade painted pottery appeared. Even throughout the prehistoric period, which runs from the middle of the sixth millennium BC to about 3000 BC, hand painted pottery is a common characteristic in many areas in Iran.
There are various records of numerous ancient and advanced civilizations along the Iranian plateau even before the arrival of the Aryans from the north, many of which are still unknown by present day historians. By 6000 BCE, the world saw a considerably sophisticated agricultural society and proto-urban population centers. On the south-west part of Iran runs the Fertile Crescent where humanity’s first major crops were grown. 7000 year-old jars of wine were unearthed in the Zagros Mountains. Ruins of old settlements such as Sialk bear testimony of these ancient civilizations.
Scholars and archeologists believe that a lot of facts are still buried, and are only beginning to be discovered on the wide scope of non-Semitic Elamite Empire and Jiroft civilizations.
III. Culture of the Common People
Although much has been written on the rulers and nobilities that ruled Persia’s long history, it was only recently that scholars and historians began to focus on the common people’s way of life. This region was a strategic location for the development of civilization. It owes much of its development and progress upon the land’s fertile soil, favorable climate and rivers as water sources.
These regions were first inhabited by nomadic herders but gradually changed to the farming way of life. The topography of the land provided grazing for their herds, and birds, while the rivers provided them a supply of fish. Early settlers cultivated and tamed the rivers. They built dams and dikes to keep the rivers from flooding their fields. They also built irrigation canals, to carry out water from the rivers to the fields when there was little rain.
Gradually, the farming villages grew into city-states. Each state had its own government independent from each other. Like many ancient people, these early inhabitants worshipped many gods. This religious system of belief is called polytheism. Since timber was scarce, the people’s artisans worked with clay to construct their homes, palaces and temples. The people shaped clay into bricks and dried it in the sun. For constructing important buildings, special bricks were baked which lasts much longer. Most temples and houses were windowless with rooms built around a central court. They built large brick temples as a home for their gods.
Most potters, weavers, metalworkers and other artisans would work either for the temple or for the royal court. Artisans also knew how to make tools and weapons of bronze. The wheel was already invented and used in these regions, including the potter’s wheel. Writing was also invented which enabled them to keep written records inscribed on baked clay tablets. With the advent of writing, man’s historic period began. The plough was already invented for farmer’s tool in cultivating their land.
Tablets were used to record business transactions, marked with signature seals of buyers, sellers and witnesses. The seals often depict miniature scenes of life of the people such as a farmer plowing, a woman weaving, or a priest receiving offerings. These “contracts” were made tamper-proof by being wrapped in a thin layer of clay, and the words of the contract were inscribed again on this cover or “envelope”.
This ancient civilization built schools to train boys in the art of writing. Students however, were mostly sons of the affluent upper-class professionals like the priest, temples and palace officials, army officers, scribes, or sea captains. The poor people are unable to send their boys to these schools, owing to high fees, and girls were never enrolled. School training was demanding, but students who learned the art of writing have better opportunities —- being able to work as scribes for the temple, royal court, or for wealthy merchants.
The people also had to deal with invasions and warfare. They also had to deal with their fear of the many god and goddesses and in thousands of lesser spirits and demons. Believing that such entities are found everywhere, their life also centered upon prayers and rituals to please them and to keep them from “punishing” them with natural disasters, famines, and plagues.
The nobles and priests were punished less severely compared to the common people. Crimes involving property were treated seriously. Women had less legal rights than their male counterpart. A few however, ran shops and inns, and even owned some property. Women were protected by laws from abuse and neglect and received payment if they were divorced. But on the other hand, a wife might be forced to slavery in order to pay back a debt her husband owed. Non-royal women and the ordinary workers are mentioned by their rank according to the specific work group or workshops they were employed. Their wages are based on skill and the level of responsibility they assumed in the workplace. The professions were divided by gender. It has been indicated in ancient records that some professions were undertaken by both sexes, while some were restricted to either to the female or male workers. Women are allowed to occupy supervisory ranks as evidenced by the higher wages they have received. Women managers have different titles depending on their level of skill and rank. The highest ranking female worker is called arashshara or great chief, who managed large groups of women children and even men working in their units. Their wages of portions of wine and grains exceed all the other workers in the unit including the males (See “Women’s Lives in Ancient Persia”).
Due to the invention of a system of writing, other areas were developed such as the keeping of written laws, advances in practical mathematics and astronomy. The clear air made it possible for them to observe the stars regularly — the changing positions of the planets and the different phases of the moon.
Among other things that were scarce, aside from timber, other resources such as stone, and metal were also lacking. The people therefore learned to trade, which became important to the economy from earliest times. Rivers made a way to transport goods by ship. Transportation was enhanced by wheel on land, while the sail on water. Traders sell their goods on bazaars or marketplaces, and merchants also sell their wares by setting up trading posts in foreign lands. The Persian Gulf was a rich source of copper.
It was in 2000 BC, that the people known as Aryans began to migrate from their homeland, somewhere northeast of the Black Sea. They traveled in several directions, mostly to the south and west. As they migrated, the Aryans brought with them a distinctive language. Today, this language is usually called Indo-European. It was called as such, because it became the ancestor of nearly all the languages now spoken in India and Europe.
With the coming of the Aryans, artisans began to discover how to work iron ore into iron. Compared with bronze, ironworking was more difficult. Higher temperature and new techniques were needed. At first iron was rare and was mainly used for religious objects or for swords, and statues for royal gifts. The people began to realize that tools and weapons made in iron were stronger and sharper than those made of bronze.
For centuries, merchants had carried on trade by bartering or exchanging one kind of goods for another. But later on, the people began the use of coins in trade. Metals of gold, silver, or a mixture of both was molded into disks of equal weight. The newly invented coins made trade much easier. Suppose, for example, a potter needed a sheep for wool. If barter was used for trading, the potter had to look for a shepherd who would want his pottery. But with the onset of the coinage system, the potter could sell his wares to anyone who had the coins to buy it. With the coins, he then could buy the sheep for the wool he needed.
A median prince named Cyaxares founded the Median Empire which included the Iranian Plateaus, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. But the Median Empire was short lived, and a valiant Persian chieftain, Cyrus, revolted and deposed the last Median monarch. Cyrus gained control of the Iranian Plateau, but continued to conquer Mesopotamia and Egypt as well — thereby founding the Persian Empire. Because of his military exploits, he came to be known as Cyrus the Great. He established the dynasty Achaemenid. Achaemenid Persia’s royal court is strongly associated with luxurious living. High ranking individuals were surrounded with precious objects. They use gold and silver bowls for eating and wore dazzling jewelry. Most of these items had been found in burials, which implies that they kept their valuable possessions with them even in death. Dining was an essential part of the ancient Persians. Food was elaborate as were the rituals that are carried out along these banquets. They had ornate bowls, and rhytons or drinking vessels, jugs, strainers, ladles and scoops. The rich wore a great deal of jewelry. Men and women wore headdresses, torcs, earrings, necklaces and bracelets, and gold ornaments sewed on clothes (See “Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia”).
After his death in battle, he was succeeded by able rulers who carried on his conquests. The greatest ruler of the Achaemenid dynasty was Darius I. It was during his reign that Persia attained her Golden Age. Darius established an excellent administrative system. The empire was divided into 20 provinces governed by a local governor. Darius only failure was his invasion of Greece. His son Xerxes also failed to conquer Greece. Although they did not progress in their plans to enlarge their empire west land, the Persians united the peoples in the Near East — Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Hebrews, Phoenicians, Lydian, and Hittites. All these were under one rule and blended together in many cultures.
Persian rulers sought ways to unite the vast empire together. As the rulers improved and extended the Assyrian’s roads to link distant cities — the soldiers, merchants, and messengers were able to travel faster. It was Cyrus the Great who set up the first efficient postal system, using relays of mounted messengers. This 1,200 – mile-long road stretching from Sardis to Susa is known as the Royal Road. It had eighty stations where couriers could change horses. A Greek historian once described the messengers as being stopped by nothing at all. Government officials and merchants throughout the empire commonly used Aramaic in official business. Darius employed inspector-spies known as “Eyes and Ears of the King”. The rulers kept track of governors. From the local people, officials were chosen (by the rulers), a practice which played an important role in holding the empire together. The people paid taxes and provided the human resource for recruitment for the army.
Darius allowed the Persians to retain their religions, languages and customs. After his death, his successors were weak monarchs so that Persia’s glory and power declined. Darius III failed to check Alexander the Great’s invasion of Persia. Thus, the Persian Empire collapsed.
The primary contribution of Persia to civilization was Zoroastrianism. It is a religion which is based on the belief that life is a constant struggle between the forces of good and evil. The founder of this religion was Zoroaster, considered as the “Prophet of Iran”. It had a bible called Zen-Avesta. Their priests were called Magi. Zoroaster taught the people that they had a choice between doing good or evil. Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord, was seen as the supreme god, who stands for truth, goodness, and light. Ahriman was the Evil Spirit who represented evil and darkness. According to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda and the forces of good would triumph at the end of the world, when the earth will be destroyed by fire. Those who followed the path of truth and goodness will enter the realm of eternal light and goodness. Those who chose otherwise will be punished. The Persian Kings made Zoroastrianism the official religion of the empire, and it spread widely in the Near East. After Zoroaster’s death, the religion was corrupted into fire worship. This religion had endured through the centuries and is still being followed in present-day Iran and India. (M. Perry. A History of the World).
Another important contribution by the Persians was the system of provincial administration. It covers the provincial executives, the local system of taxation, and the first postal services. Later, Alexander the Great and the Romans adapted this system. Modern nations up to now, benefited from this knowledge of administration.
And last but not the least, the world also inherited from Persia the elaborated system of court etiquette, which is still found and adapted by the royal courts of the present day (G Zaide, S Zaide. World History).
References:
1. “Women’s Lives in Ancient Persia”. http://www.parstimes.com/women/women_ancient_persia.html
2. “Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia”. http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/forgottenempire/luxury/index.html
3. Perry, Marvin. A History of the World. 1988. ISBN 971-08-4526-8
4. Zaide G, Zaide S. World History. 2002.
