In The Tale of Heike, the Japanese perspective on defeat and dying is shown through multiple incidents portrayed in the novel. Being defeated was considered shameful, while prevailing brought respect and honor. Various accounts illustrate that one could defeat an opponent through actions such as exile, insults, or revenge. Due to the shame associated with defeat, warriors would choose to kill themselves rather than be killed by their opponents. If a warrior failed in their duty, suicide was seen as a necessary step to restore honor.
The act of suicide in Heike does not only have the potential to bestow honor, but it can also serve as a means of shaming individuals. If one prevents their adversary from taking their own life (by forcing them into exile), it becomes an act of disgraceful humiliation. According to Kanehira in Heike, regardless of a warrior’s prior glorious reputation, a dishonorable death is an everlasting form of disgrace (380). Through the lens of these warriors, being killed by the enemy brings about shamefulness.
In battle, if a warrior knew that he was about to be killed by the enemy, he would rather choose to commit suicide instead of having his life taken by the enemy. An example of this is when Kanehira witnessed Lord Kiso’s head being taken by two of Tamehisa’s followers; he had the chance to maintain his honor by taking his own life since he no longer had to protect anyone (381). Prior to his suicide, he declares, “this is how the bravest man in Japan commits suicide (381)!” This demonstrates to the reader that in the warrior class’s ethos, suicide was regarded as both courageous and honorable.
Koremori (415) and Antoku (426) both chose to drown themselves in the sea as an honorable alternative to being killed by their enemies. Committing suicide was seen as a means of regaining one’s honor after failing a duty, as it would prevent the shame of defeat. During a encounter with the Genji, a woman approached them on a boat, inviting them to shoot the fan she held on a pole. Yoshitsune instructed Munetaka to shoot the fan precisely in the middle (420), but Munetaka hesitated due to the fear of disgrace if he failed. Reluctantly, Munetaka closed his eyes in silent prayer, promising to destroy his bow and take his own life if he missed, as he could not bear the shame of failure (420). Munetaka understood that his failure would bring dishonor to the Genji, making suicide his only way to atone. Additionally, the Heike clan believed in humiliating their enemies as another method of defeating them and causing shame. Kiyomori frequently subjected his foes to humiliation.
The Taira’s conspiracy against Kiyomori led to the exile of Naritsune, Yasuyori, and Shunkan to Kikai-ga-shima, a distant island. Although only Naritsune and Yasuyori were eventually pardoned, Shunkan did not receive the same mercy. Kiyomori’s revenge on Shunkan stemmed from the fact that he had given him a job yet was betrayed by him. This act of revenge involved shaming Naritsune, Yasuyori, and Shunkan by denying them the opportunity to take their own lives and instead sentencing them to death by starvation. Insults served as another means of shaming one’s enemies.
Nakatsuma denies Munemori the opportunity to ride Konoshita in a passive aggressive manner by falsely claiming that the horse was exhausted from being ridden excessively. This deception causes Munemori to feel humiliated. Seeking revenge, Munemori takes hold of Konoshita and renames it Nakatsuna. Whenever a visitor arrives, Munemori instructs them to saddle or mount Nakatsuna, further adding to Nakatsuma’s humiliation. In return, Nakatsuna retaliates by branding Munemori’s horse Nanryo as “Taira Buddhist Novice Munemori, formerly Nanryo.” This incident illustrates the fact that in the warrior code, it was customary to shame those who had shamed you.
The humiliation experienced by warriors during battle took various forms, such as the public display of an enemy’s severed head. Prior to engaging in combat, warriors would loudly proclaim their lineage, titles, and names. This was a customary ritual performed by Moritoshi before attempting to kill Noritsuna (392). It was crucial for warriors to ascertain the identities of their enemies before slaying them, as “killing an enemy holds little significance unless he has identified himself and made the other fellow do the same” (392). The level of recognition and fame derived from defeating an opponent depended on their standing and reputation, rather than just any random encounter (387). Once the exchange of names took place, a victorious warrior would proudly declare the name of the fallen foe they had just killed, solidifying their own fame. For example, when Noritsuna deceived Moritoshi and decapitated him, he impaled Moritoshi’s head on his sword and proudly proclaimed, “Inomata no Koheiroku Noritsuna has slain Etchu no Zenji Moritoshi, the Heike samurai known in these days as a demon god!” (393). The defeated warriors not only suffered the shame of being killed by their enemies but were also further humiliated through the public display of their severed heads.
After battles, the winning side would march through the public streets, proudly parading all of the heads they had gathered (399). For those victorious soldiers, this macabre display of severed heads symbolized their honor. Noriyori and Yoshitsune justified their actions by stating that as warriors, they risked their lives to eliminate the court’s enemies and to appease His Majesty’s anger, thereby restoring their fathers’ honor (399). This parade of heads served as a powerful incentive for them to continue defeating traitors in the future (399). Another crucial aspect of the warrior class’s ethos was the unwavering courage to fulfill the expectations of their code, regardless of any obstacles they faced.
The slaying of enemies was required when they had their backs turned, and they were not allowed to beg for mercy. Noritsuna begged Moritoshi to spare his life, offering his deeds of saving Heike men as a trade-off (392). Moritoshi refused Noritsuna’s plea, stating that he would be dishonoring himself (393). However, the defeated were expected to consider their death as a duty. Naozane called out to Atsumori, unaware that he was just a young boy, instructing him that he must die.
Naozane was saddened when he saw that Atsumori was a young boy who reminded him of his own son. Despite knowing his fate, Atsumori accepted it without asking for his life. He courageously stated, “Just take my head; don’t waste time” (395). Their actions demonstrated the bravery expected of warriors. Naozane also revealed another way to achieve an honorable death: having someone offer prayers on your behalf. Naozane suggested to Atsumori, “It will be better if I’m the one to kill you because I’ll offer prayers for you” (395). To break free from the harmful cycle of dishonor and honor, one could choose to pursue a spiritual path and become a monk or nun.
After being disgraced by Kiyomori, Gio, Ginyo, Toji, and Hotoke all became nuns (265-72). Monk Mongaku lived a life of service to Josaimon’in but, because of his spiritual awakening, he turned to a life of performing austerities (317). Monks and nuns were removed from society and thus exempt from the reciprocal cycle of humiliation and shame. This provided an honorable escape since Buddha was highly respected and worshipped by the Japanese. Honor was crucial not only for warriors, but also for all Japanese individuals. Both warriors and courtiers would go to any extent to restore their honor.
Restoration of honor was achieved through various means, such as exile, insults, and vengeance, according to the honor-shame code depicted in The Tale of Heike. In the realm of warfare, warriors fought their enemies on the battlefield, while courtiers engaged in verbal attacks and humiliation to defeat their opponents. Additionally, individuals had the option to restore their honor through acts of self-sacrifice, such as suicide or lifelong spiritual devotion. For warriors, it was their duty to kill in order to preserve their honor, whereas the defeated accepted death as a means to avoid further disgrace.
