The dictionary of human geography defines imperialism as the establishment and perpetuation of an unequal relationship between states in terms of economy, culture, and territory. This relationship is typically formed through empire-building and is marked by domination and subordination. During the 19th and 20th centuries, Western societies extensively practiced this idea through expansionist and mercantilist strategies. However, at the beginning of the Tokugawa era, Japan chose to isolate itself from international matters.
In the feudal system, all citizens in Japan had specific roles and were submissive. However, by 1914, Japan had gained imperial power by adopting strategies from western powers that once colonized it. Before becoming an empire through the Meiji restoration, Japan underwent a period of isolation. To understand how Japan achieved imperial power similar to that of a north Atlantic power by 1914, it is crucial to analyze its attributes and tactics.
Japan’s emergence as an imperial power was largely influenced by its cultivation of nationalistic values. The country’s initial isolation from the outside world played a crucial role in its subsequent expansion as an empire. Japan implemented a structured and inflexible way of life, rejecting foreign influences and prohibiting alliances that could endanger the shogun through the implementation of an “organized hostage system.” Furthermore, Japan adopted a stance of resistance towards foreign intervention and refused to be subordinate to external powers.
During the Meiji restoration and the overhaul of all systems, the Japanese experienced a sense of cultural loss, leading to the inclusion of Confucianism and Shintoism in the reformed education systems. This led to the establishment of an ideology where Japan considered itself a conservative state and a distinct nation. Despite eventually succumbing to intervention by the United States, Japan managed to maintain its culture and develop a strong sense of self-worth, which was remarkable. The presence of this larger imperial power did not cause Japan to lose its cultural identity.
Unlike other dominated territories of its time, Japan responded to foreign intrusion with strong nationalism and unity. The oligarchs exerted influence over the Meiji emperor, elevating him to a celestial standard and ensuring support for all forms of reformation. Teachers underwent training to encourage loyalty to the Meiji emperor, propagate Japanese religion and culture, as well as foster respect for one’s relatives. Moreover, according to Richie (1992, p56), standard school history texts emphasized the moral duty of loyalty to the emperor and encouraged a sense of unity and national vigor.
The education system in Japan, a nation renowned for its high literacy rates, played a crucial role in nurturing patriotic sentiments and imparting the military with values of unwavering obedience and sacrifice. This mindset, combined with an increasing sense of self-importance, fueled ambitions for power and dominance on the international stage, as Japan sought to attain authority and prestige akin to other imperial nations. Drawing inspiration from these influential countries, Japan successfully employed a strategy of emulation to transform itself into an imperial force resembling those found in the North Atlantic region. However, despite these endeavors, Japan persisted with a policy of isolation from the rest of the world, leading to foreign intervention beginning in 1853.
In 1853, Commodore Perry sailed to Edo bay and delivered a letter on behalf of American president Adams. The letter stated that no nation should isolate itself from the world and demanded that they open their ports to passing ships. This action by the United States inspired other powers like Britain, France, and Russia to follow suit and allow access to their harbors.
The heavy interference from powerful states and Japan’s inability to effectively resist them resulted in the introduction of unequal treaties in Japanese diplomacy. These treaties granted foreigners access to ports and even permission to reside in certain towns in Japan. Consequently, the Japanese gained knowledge about the structures of their western counterparts, which made them feel submissive. They observed the culture and institutions of these countries and expressed a desire to “modernize” their own state to meet European standards.
The Iwakura mission, which took place in 1871, involved individuals from various countries being employed by Japan for a period of time. During their time abroad, they observed and learned from different aspects of other nations. In Germany, they studied the military and political institutions, while in the US, they focused on education. France provided insights into banking programs, and England shared knowledge on naval expertise and railway systems. The mission aimed to bring back anything beneficial for Japan’s development. Additionally, scholars were sent overseas to acquire Western technologies, sciences, and languages. Foreign intellectuals were also invited to teach in Japan. Through these efforts, Japan successfully modernized its country, gaining the respect of European powers and ending foreign occupation. To regain its independence, Meiji Japan underwent comprehensive institutional reforms aimed at becoming a democratic state that offered equal opportunities to all social classes. These reforms included introducing human rights and freedom of religious practices, which were absent during the Tokugawa regime.
The government reformation of Japan involved the abolition and retrieval of privileges previously bestowed upon feudal lords during the Tokugawa era, including land ownership. Additionally, a parliamentary system was implemented in 1889, with the emperor retaining his sovereignty. The education system was also revamped, drawing inspiration from French and German models. Japan looked to other countries for technology, social systems, infrastructure, and educational techniques, incorporating and modifying them to suit their specific requirements and cultural context. They embraced successful practices while discarding ineffective ones.
The transformation of Japan was a strategic move to convince Europeans that Japan had assimilated into their culture. By appearing non-threatening, Japan was able to lower the defenses of European powers and position itself as a potential colony. After witnessing the success of European imperialism, Japan decided to industrialize. By studying the economic development of European states, Japan transitioned from an agrarian economy under the Tokugawan era to a modern industrial producer.
Practicing the statement “fukoku kyokei (enrich the country and strengthen the military) Japan transformed into an “optimized industrial state” where mass production became the primary focus of its culture. (hyhist) With the opening of their borders to foreign nations, Japan started importing manufactured European and US goods, resulting in a significant presence of foreign products in the market. This had a detrimental impact on small Japanese producers, many of whom faced bankruptcy. Seeking equality among global powers, the Meiji emperor aimed to address this issue by creating a robust economy that would not suffer from the same flaws as the European economies.
They realized that they cultivated various products like raw silk, tea, buttons, gold leaf, and cotton textiles. These products were suitable for mass production and export to nations with high demands. The textile industry in Japan experienced significant growth and became the fastest and strongest until the Second World War, despite the financial crisis and currency reform in the 1880’s. Japan also adopted a strong military, following the strategy of north Atlantic imperial powers.
Japan was forced by the imperial European powers to open its ports and accept Western influences. In order to survive and protect itself, Japan realized the importance of developing its military skills. The Meiji restoration marked the beginning of this endeavor, as Japan aimed to compete with other imperial nations and expand its territory. The Japanese government devoted a significant amount of money to the military’s development, allocating 30% of government funds between 1880 and 1912. To achieve their goal, they disbanded the samurai class and promoted class equality in 1876. Additionally, a system of conscription was implemented in 1872, allowing peasants to partake in the modernization process by serving three years in the military.
By the 1890’s, Japan had gained the military capability to expand its territory and establish itself as an imperial state. This was evident when Britain and Japan formed an alliance to defeat China during the Boxer rebellion. One indication of a nation’s imperial power is its ability to acquire new territories, which Japan successfully accomplished. According to Schumpeter, this characteristic is referred to as the state’s objectless disposition for unlimited forcible expansion. It represents the state’s desire to assert its power and dominance within the global system.
Japan can also be described as nationalistic, as it sought to prove that it was not inferior but a superior nation compared to others. By 1910, Japan had forcefully acquired three Asian territories: Taiwan from the Sino-Japanese war, Korea through annexation, and the Kwantung leased territories in southern Manchuria. The West considered Korea strategically important. The war between China and Japan arose from Chinese influence in Korea’s government affairs. Japan initially supported Korea’s independence but later annexed it for its own agenda.
After winning the war, Japan sought to strengthen its region by acquiring additional territories, which aligned with the interests of the western powers. Lenin propagated a theory of monopoly capital, stating that capitalists aimed to deploy excess capital overseas to attain greater profits compared to the domestic market. He identified the presence of monopolistic firms with significant economic power and the convergence of banking and industrial capital as essential features of imperialism. In Japan, the existence of Zaibatsu, a class of business owners, held immense importance.
During the 1880’s, the government sold several industrial plants and mines to the zaibatsu, enabling them to become financially strong. Additionally, each zaibatsu owned banks that contributed to Japan’s rise as a powerful financial state preceding World War One. By 1914, Japan had achieved the status of an imperial power similar to Western nations. It had successfully implemented strategies like modernization, industrialization, military development, and the adoption of a Western societal structure. Additionally, it exhibited characteristics associated with Western imperial powers such as market expansion and a nationalistic attitude.
