Following the Revolutionary War, America’s main objective was safeguarding its independence from more powerful European nations. The primary aim of its foreign policy was to restrict European colonization in the Western Hemisphere. At that time, America held a significant amount of land across the continent and refrained from involvement with other countries. Nonetheless, as the new century neared, this approach of avoiding international affairs gradually evolved.
The United States adopted a new foreign policy driven by an increased sense of imperialism within the country, influenced by the Spanish American War and America’s involvement in China, the Caribbean, and Latin America. Throughout its history, the United States has consistently shown a strong desire for expansion, whether it be through “manifest destiny” or annexing Indian territories. Originally motivated by economic development, their motivations have evolved over time.
In the late 19th century, the United States was enticed by the concept of becoming a worldwide force and attaining political hegemony. This aspiration was justified as a “moral obligation” to disseminate democracy and Christianity. The Spanish-American War served as an illustration of this novel form of imperialism, disturbing the global equilibrium that had facilitated America’s solitary development since 1815.
The United States’ decision to aid Cuba in its fight for independence from Spain marked a substantial departure from its typical stance of liberal nationalism. The war concluded in 1898 with the Treaty of Paris, which not only granted Cuba independence but also transferred valuable Spanish territories to the United States, including Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. As a result, the United States acquired multiple external territories and assumed the role of a colonial power.
In 1898, the United States underwent a major shift in its diplomatic position by assuming colonial responsibilities. This change signaled a fundamental and lasting transformation, rather than just temporary interests. As the nation advanced, the foreign policies of the 19th century became less applicable in the context of the 20th century. The United States possessed various attributes, including a significant population, expansive territory, strategically advantageous geographic location, abundant economic resources, and formidable military capability. These qualities were instrumental in establishing its status as a great power.
Foreign policy had to adapt due to changing circumstances. By the 1900s, the United States engaged in a war with Spain for Cuba and the Philippines, as well as annexing Hawaii and other territories, which resulted in minor imperial power status. The country became involved in European affairs during World War I; however, after the war, America experienced a wave of isolationism. As a result, membership in the League of Nations was rejected and focus turned inward once again. The nation focused on prosperity during the 1920s but was then devastated by the Great Depression in the 1930s. Consequently, America allowed its military strength to weaken.
The United States was not prepared for war when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941. In the late 1890s, Americans had a strong desire to acquire territories outside of their country, such as Samoa, Central America, and the Philippines. However, by 1900, the focus shifted towards building a strong navy. The U.S. took a firm stance during the Venezuela Boundary Dispute in 1895 and intervened in the Cuban War for Independence (also known as the Spanish-American War). This period also saw an increase in expansionist literature. Following World War II, there was a significant shift in U.S. foreign policy as it emerged as the leading global economic power.
In the mid-19th Century, the nation’s foreign policies remained unchanged, with isolation and neutrality being firmly upheld. Americans who were xenophobic regularly criticized their representatives abroad and questioned the need for contact with the Old World. However, in 1898, a significant event occurred that changed everything. The United States became a superpower due to a war that disrupted its previous state of isolation since 1815. This conflict arose from domestic support for Cuba’s independence and dragged the United States into a war with Spain over the fate of Cuba. This decision to aid Cuba was a major departure from America’s usual practice of liberal nationalism and had far-reaching consequences. The war ended with the 1898 Treaty of Paris, which granted Cuba independence while also leading to the United States acquiring Spanish possessions like Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. As a result,the United States transformed into a colonial power with overseas dependencies.
The assumption of colonial responsibilities in 1898 marked a significant change in the United States’ diplomatic posture and reflected both temporary enthusiasms and long-term shifts. The foreign policies of the early 19th century became less relevant as profound changes occurred within the nation. With its population, geographic size and location, economic resources, and military potential, the United States possessed almost all the qualities of a great power, surpassing or closely trailing other countries.
President William McKinley stressed the necessity of altering foreign policy to accommodate the current circumstances, as he addressed American diplomats negotiating the Treaty of Paris. He underscored that the war had imposed fresh obligations and duties on the United States. McKinley recognized that these responsibilities aligned with the nation’s historical destiny and its role in advancing civilization, as determined by a higher power. George L., another contemporary observer, also made remarks regarding this matter.
Rives expanded on this interpretation, stating that the country is entering a new period in its history where it will have closer and more complex relations with other major global powers. This shift will render traditional foreign policy obsolete and establish the perception that the United States has abandoned its previous stance of isolation. The new policies towards Latin America and Asia resulted in a substantial revision of the Monroe Doctrine.
Diplomats in the 19th century used the Monroe Doctrine to warn European powers against more colonization in the Western Hemisphere. However, it did not allow the United States to interfere in other American republics’ internal affairs. In 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt introduced a change to the Monroe Doctrine called the “Roosevelt Corollary.” Roosevelt and other influential Americans feared that European creditor nations might exploit Latin American states’ debts for political control.
Roosevelt asserted that Latin American countries adhering to “acceptable international standards of behavior” need not fear intervention from the United States. However, he also acknowledged that chronic wrongdoing or societal impotence may necessitate intervention by a civilized nation, including America. Additionally, Roosevelt emphasized that adherence to the Monroe Doctrine may oblige the United States, though with reluctance, to exercise international police power in cases of flagrant wrongdoing or impotence within the western hemisphere. Furthermore, the acquisition of the Philippines catalyzed the formulation of a new American policy for East Asia. As American business interests recognized the immense potential of the Chinese market, European encroachments in China posed a threat to American access. In 1899, Secretary of State John Hay proposed that nations interested in China should uphold the principle of free trade and “enjoy perfect equality of treatment for navigation,” known as the open-door policy. In 1900, Hay expanded this policy to also include respect for China’s territorial and administrative integrity.
New Prestige, New Growth These significant policy changes and the resulting increase in U.S. international political commitments led to a revitalized Department of State. The Department underwent a comprehensive reorganization to meet its new obligations, and significant strides were made towards establishing professional and democratic foreign services. In 1898, the Department had a staff of 82 individuals; however, by 1910, this number had grown to 234. Concurrently, the Diplomatic Service experienced a modest growth from 93 individuals in 1900 to 121 in 1910.
The annual budget for the Department increased significantly due to expansion. From 1900 to 1910, its expenditures at home and overseas rose from $3.4 million to $4.9 million. The Consular Service also faced a notable increase in its workload. As overseas trade boomed from $1.8 billion to $3 billion, the collection of annual fees nearly tripled in less than 20 years. This increased responsibility led to a comprehensive reorganization of the Department in 1909. Francis M., the Assistant Secretary of State, was one reformer involved in this process.
Huntington Wilson successfully increased the number of leadership positions within the Department. As a result, the Department now had three Assistant Secretaries of State, a Counselor responsible for special assignments, and a Director in charge of administering the Consular Service. Furthermore, the bureau system was expanded to facilitate diplomacy based on distinct geographic regions such as Western Europe, the Near East, the Far East, and Latin America. This expansion greatly improved overseas communication. Additionally, several other bureaus and divisions were established to handle new areas of responsibility. Notably, a Bureau of Trade Relations and a Division of Information were created.
Talented diplomats were brought back to Washington to staff the new geographic bureaus, adding much-needed field experience. The Spanish-American War of 1898 revealed the first cracks in the international balance of power that had governed global relations since 1815. The United States entered the 20th century as an emerging superpower—and adopted new foreign policies and professional diplomatic practices to suit its role. The revitalized Department of State had little time to prepare for the unprecedented challenges that the United States would face during the first European war in 100 years.
In 1898, the United States took on colonial responsibilities, which signaled a significant shift in its diplomatic stance and foreign policy. This change was not only influenced by temporary enthusiasms but also reflected the nation’s transformation at the turn of the 20th century. The foreign policies that had been relevant in the early 19th century lost their importance as the United States, with its large population, expansive geography, strategic location between two oceans, abundant economic resources, and military strength – all characteristics of a great power – needed to modify its foreign policy accordingly.
