The 1960 presidential election was unique as it featured John F. Kennedy, a newcomer, running against Vice President Richard M. Nixon. This election is notable for its televised debates and being the second time a Catholic ran for president and the first time a Catholic won.
John F. Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts. He came from an Irish background and graduated from Harvard in 1940. After serving in World War II, he returned home in 1946 and became a Democratic Congressman before joining the Senate in 1953.
His father, Joseph Kennedy, played a significant role in his political career due to his wealth and influence. Joseph Kennedy was a self-made millionaire who held high positions such as chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission and ambassador to Great Britain.
John’s mother, Rose (Fitzgerald) Kennedy,
was the daughter of John F. Fitzgerald..
Richard Milhouse Nixon was born on January 9, 1913, in Yorba Linda, California. He came from a Quaker family and excelled academically. Graduating second in his class from Whittier College in 1934 and later third in his class from Duke University Law School.
Nixon began his professional career by joining a law firm and working for the tire-rationing section of the Office of Price Administration in Washington, D.C. During World War II, he enlisted in the Navy and served as a supply officer in the Pacific.
After the war, Nixon entered politics as a Republican Anti-Communist. He became a California Congressman after defeating Democrat Jerry Voorhis and later became a junior member of the House Committee on Un-American Activities.
At thirty-five years old, Nixon gained national recognition by winning his senatorial race in 1950. After serving as a Senator for just over a year, he was chosen as Dwight D. Eisenhower’s vice presidential running mate by the Republican National Convention.
Nixon went on to serve two terms as Vice President.In the 1960 election, many Democratic leaders joined the race due to their increased majorities in both the Senate and the House. The Senate had 64 Democratic seats and 32 Republican seats, while the House had 283 Democratic seats and 153 Republican seats. John F. Kennedy’s re-election as Senator of Massachusetts in 1958 made him the top candidate for the Democratic party. Despite facing tough competition from other Democrats like Hubert Humphrey, Stewart Symington, Adlai Stevenson, and Lyndon Johnson, Kennedy overcame these challenges. His victory in predominantly Protestant West Virginia challenged the belief that a Catholic candidate couldn’t win. Unlike previous Catholic nominee Governor Al Smith of New York in 1928 who was easily defeated, Kennedy emphasized that his religion hadn’t hindered his service in the United States Navy or his brother’s courageous actions as a pilot. While proud of being Catholic, he assured that his decisions as president would not be influenced by Catholic doctrine.
The Republican primary election included contenders Richard Milhouse Nixon, vice president to President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and Nelson Rockefeller, governor of New York. Rockefeller supported stronger defense programs, a faster missile buildup, reinforced civil rights measures,and a governmental boost to the economy – proposals later accepted by Nixon.Despite initially not appearing as a strong candidate against Rockefeller, Nixon had great potential to be a successful president and ultimately emerged as the frontrunner. However, despite his experience as vice president, American voters were not convinced.
The nomination battle ended with two influential men remaining: Democrat John Fitzgerald Kennedy and Republican nominee Richard Milhouse Nixon. According to Moss, despite their differences, Nixon leaned towards being a moderate conservative with liberal tendencies while Kennedy was a moderate liberal with conservative tendencies. Both were committed to the Cold War, embraced aspects of the New Deal welfare state, advocated for civil rights, and believed in a strong presidency.
Despite a history of animosity, Kennedy chose Lyndon Johnson as his running mate in order to secure Texas and the Southern states for the upcoming November election against Nixon. Kennedy’s platform was known as the “New Frontier,” symbolizing unknown opportunities and challenges. Additionally, the Democratic platform emphasized civil rights and promised strong presidential leadership, earning the nickname “The Rights of Man.”
As for Nixon, he selected Henry Cabot Lodge as his Vice Presidential pick after consulting with Republican party leaders and considering foreign affairs. Lodge was a former Massachusetts Senator and ambassador to the United Nations. Nixon’s platform focused on establishing a strategy for international peace and freedom under the theme of “race for survival.”
Initially, many believed that Nixon would easily defeat Kennedy in the election. However, Kennedy’s popularity grew after their participation in four televised debates.The first-ever presidential debates took place from September 26 to October 21. The initial debate on September 26 drew the largest audience, estimated at 75 million viewers in 30 million homes. During this debate, Kennedy displayed charisma, constant smiling, and delivered facts quickly. He effectively addressed questions about his experience and qualifications compared to Nixon’s, emphasizing their equal government experience. Kennedy also advocated for taking action to maximize the United States’ potential.
On the other hand, Nixon chose not to wear makeup and appeared tired and pale. He struggled to make a positive impression and seemed awkward and defensive in his responses. Nixon faced challenges when questioned about his claim of superior policy-handling skills, particularly since President Eisenhower had not endorsed any of Nixon’s policy proposals while he was vice president or advisor.
Despite sharing Kennedy’s belief in the need for progress, Nixon disagreed that the country had been sufficiently productive. Instead, he aligned himself with Eisenhower’s record of growth. While Nixon gradually improved in the subsequent three debates and gained a slight advantage overall, his initial appearance in the first debate remained difficult to overcome.
First impressions have a lasting impact on people’s memories for a significant amount of time.
The debates during the 1960 election were ineffective in addressing important issues and lacked clarity when it came to differentiating between party positions. Nixon argued that the Democratic platform would result in an $18 billion increase in taxpayers’ rates, while the Republicans’ spending increase would be less than $5 billion. These debates essentially turned into popularity contests, where superficial factors like personality and appearance determined the outcomes. The presence of Nikita Khruschev at the United Nations brought foreign policy to the forefront of these debates. Khruschev’s actions served as reminders of past events such as the U-2 incident, aborted summit meeting, and canceled visit to Japan. He criticized Eisenhower and called for a new summit conference, expressing his willingness to meet with a Democratic President. Eisenhower also faced criticism from Soviets when Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi retracted his invitation to visit Japan due to concerns for his safety amidst a crowd of ten thousand students blocking James Hagerty’s motorcade in Tokyo. The Japanese government had to rescue him via helicopter from the mob. Upon returning to the US, Eisenhower declared that Communists had invested significant efforts and money into creating disorder in Tokyo but could not conceal the damage done to American pride.
The days leading up to Election Day were eventful. Kennedy’s popularity increased due to his innovative ideas for revitalizing America, which resonated with a public grappling with unemployment and economic downturn and being more receptive to change. His involvement in civil rights, including assisting Martin Luther King’s release from jail and potentially saving his life, further enhanced Kennedy’s appeal. He also promised to issue an executive order prohibiting segregation in federally subsidized housing. These actions helped him secure victories in Texas, North Carolina, and among the northern black inner-city vote.
Eisenhower actively campaigned, contributing to Nixon receiving positive reception. In the 1960 election, Kennedy emerged as the winner over Nixon with a lead of 313-219 electoral votes. However, despite his victory, Kennedy only surpassed Nixon by about 118,000 votes out of a record-breaking total of 68 million votes cast. He received 49.7% of the popular vote compared to Nixon’s close 49.5%. It is worth noting that Kennedy performed strongly in states like New York Pennsylvania Texas Illinois Michigan Massachusetts that carried significant electoral weight.
Nixon’s wins in California and Ohio could not make up for his smaller wins in terms of electoral votes. On the legislative front, the Republican Party gained only 22 seats in the House and two seats in the Senate.
During the 1960 election, the Democratic Party was popular and had majorities in both the House and Senate. It is important to note that many voters split their tickets, with Republicans (including Catholics) voting for Kennedy and Democrats (mainly Protestants) voting for Nixon. Both candidates raised record funds and traveled extensively during the campaign. Nixon campaigned in all fifty states while Kennedy traveled over 100,000 miles using a leased jet. This election is considered one of the toughest in modern American political history.
My research has revealed that presidential elections can be more intriguing than they initially appear. I found it fascinating how a candidate’s religion could impact perception and bias, as seen with John F. Kennedy’s Catholicism in the Election of 1960. Voters faced challenges in overcoming stereotypes and making decisions based on factors beyond religious beliefs. However, some voters were still heavily influenced by this factor to the point where Democrats even voted Republican solely because of it. I believe times have changed now, and religion would not significantly impact the selection of a president anymore.
As a nation, although we have become more open-minded in certain aspects, ignorance remains prevalent.
Unfortunately, I am skeptical about seeing a woman or minority become President of the United States. The traditional voting patterns may hinder their chances. Additionally, I believe that Kennedy’s physical attractiveness greatly contributed to his success in the televised debates. It is conceivable that many voters in the 1960 election overlooked campaign issues and voted solely based on appearance, suggesting a persistent trend throughout history.
During a conversation with my grandmother, I inquired about the 1960 Election to gain insight into her personal experience. As she was present at that time while I hadn’t even been born and my parents were young, I was eager to know who she voted for and why. She informed me that she supported Kennedy and clarified that his appeal did not sway her decision, stating “That is foolish and not why I voted for him.” Instead, she admired his youthfulness, Catholic background, Massachusetts roots, extensive political expertise, and alignment with her own beliefs. A major factor in choosing Kennedy over Nixon was her lack of trust in the latter. She once expressed “I thought Nixon could not be trusted. I could not trust him as far as I could throw him.” She firmly believed Kennedy was the most suitable candidate for the role. When discussing televised debates, she found them intriguing because they allowed one to observe facial reactions which were concealed on radio broadcasts.
Bibliography: Boyer, Paul S. Promises to Keep: The United States Since World War II Second Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999
David, Paul T. The Presidential Election and Transition 1960-1961.
Two sources provide valuable insights into the topic. Firstly, “Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1961” offers relevant information. Secondly, “Foreign Policy and U.S. Presidential Elections 1952-1960” by Robert A. Divine from New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1974 provides additional perspectives.
Kennedy, John F. from the White House website: http://www.whitehouse.gov/WH/glimpse/presidents/html/jk35.html and Moss, George Donelson from America In the Twentieth Century, Fourth Edition.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2000.
There is a link to a webpage about Richard Milhous Nixon along with a citation for the book “The Hopefuls: Ten Presidential Campaigns” by Lloyd Robinson. The link is within a paragraph tag.
Roseboom, Eugene H. A History of Presidential Elections: From George Washington to Richard M. Nixon. London: Macmillan, 1970. Sevareid, Eric. Candidates 1960. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1959.
