Gilroy examines the concept of solidarity and its relationship to identity in both Corregidora and The Lonely Londoners. Identity is a complex idea that can be interpreted from different angles, including self-perception, interpersonal connections, and commonalities such as language and experiences.
In the exploration of post-colonial Black individuals and their struggle to establish their own identity in relation to others, solidarity emerges as a crucial concept. Paul Gilroy discusses solidarity as a matter of identity in his work “British Cultural Studies and the Pitfalls of Identity.” According to Gilroy, identity should be understood as being influenced by historical and economic structures, which are manifested through signifying practices. Furthermore, identity is formed within institutional settings that govern and demonstrate the convergence of individuals in structured social processes (230).
The connection between historical and economic structures, signifying practices, and conditional settings can be further investigated through the examination of postcolonial novels that address and embrace the concept of solidarity. Specifically, Sam Selvon’s The Lonely Londoners and Gayl Jones’ Corregidora delve into this theme. Moreover, issues concerning community and belonging are present throughout the novels, and the establishment of such institutions is complicated when it comes to gender and sexuality. Gender plays a crucial role in terms of belonging and community.
Through an analysis of Selvon’s novel, we can delve into the relationship among West Indian men who migrated to Britain in the 1950s with hopes for a better life. It is crucial to acknowledge that racial tensions were high in London during this period and discussions about immigration were unwelcoming. However, despite these challenges, characters like Moses, Cap, Galahad, and Bart in the novel formed a strong bond due to their shared identity as West Indian immigrants. This sense of solidarity was evident through various aspects such as their skin color, background, language, and circumstances. In one instance at the start of the story, Moses emphasizes to Galahad that they must support each other because they are both Trinidadians. This particular moment underscores the significance of unity and a sense of belonging among these West Indian immigrants.
The unity that was experienced within the West Indian communities was evident even in their choice of ethnic cuisine. Selvon illustrates this through the character Moses, who describes how the white British individuals took advantage of the communities the West Indians settled in. Moses states, “from the time spades start to settle…he found out what sort of things they like to eat, and he stock up on a lot of things…and as long as spades spending money he don’t care.” (Selvon 77) The sense of belonging is also apparent in the language spoken throughout the episodic novel, which blends Trinidadian Patois with the influence of proper British English.
During a date, Galahad struggles to communicate with Daisy, a white girl. Daisy acknowledges her difficulty in understanding Galahad’s speech and remarks on the way West Indians speak. This conversation not only creates a barrier between them but also reinforces Daisy’s perception of West Indians as being distinct from the British in terms of both race and language.
According to Gilroy (in “Pitfalls”), they are perceived as different in her perspective due to their circumstances, which are influenced by historical and economic structures. These structures are reflected in various aspects like Galahad’s way of making tea, his housing, and his speech. Because of this, he is not similar to her, and by extension, neither are the West Indians. As Selvon progresses in the novel, there are more intricate indications that reinforce the idea of solidarity. This is also addressed by Gilroy as another matter: the societal limitations on the ability of individuals and groups to act (“Pitfalls” 230).
Being oppressed as a group in the West Indian community shows their unity and struggle against others. This is evident in living facilities, the workplace, and daily life. The feeling of oppression and solidarity among working men is exemplified in a conversation between Galahad and Moses:
“Lord, why do we have to suffer in this world? What is it that we want that white people find so difficult to give?”
Galahad’s use of the word ‘we’ in Selvon’s passage unifies the men, portraying them as a collective facing hardships and striving to survive together. Galahad emphasizes that their needs are minimal – a little work, food, and a place to sleep – and they don’t expect extravagant luxuries. He asserts that their struggle is shared, implying a collective responsibility for their situations. Galahad goes on to highlight that their difficulty in finding housing is not an individual issue but a widespread problem faced by all West Indians. He places blame on Black for the inequality they experience, suggesting that it is due to Black’s actions or policies.
He refers to Black as an awful person, rather than a skin color. “I went to look at that room that Ram tell me about in the Gate, and as soon as the landlady see you she say the room let already. She ain’t even give me a chance to say good morning. Why the hell you can’t change colour? ” (Selvon 89) Selvon uses this episode along with other similar stories to illustrate the challenges West Indians faced, including inflated housing prices, shared rooms, and discrimination in Britain during the 1950s. However, this prejudice extended beyond housing; finding work was also difficult, even for skilled workers.
Galahad, a trained electrician from Trinidad, crossed the Atlantic Ocean in search of opportunities and change. However, he ended up with a manual labor job, just like many other West Indians who worked physically demanding jobs and overnight shifts. This was done to reserve skilled labor positions for the British, a fact that the West Indians initially believed they were qualified for but soon discovered was not the case. This revelation led to conflict and served as a means to unite the men from the Caribbean in their shared experiences of being marginalized and oppressed. There existed a sense of community among the Working Class individuals, similar to that of people playing card games such as spades, where there is little distinction between success and failure when you have very little.
Moses elucidates the sense of unity among the men, and one comprehends that it stems from their shared experience and connection to each other. In his novel Against Race, Paul Gilroy proposes that this sense of kinship is essential to them, even if it is an imaginary bond. Gilroy’s insight is valuable as this “imaginary connection” grants the men a sense of belonging in a place where they may not be welcome. Gender and sexuality also play a significant role in fostering solidarity. Selvon’s novel focuses on a community of men and explores the relationship between West Indian men and women. While the men stand together against oppression based on their race and color, West Indian women face dual forms of oppression for being both black and female.
Selvon’s novel depicts the power struggle between male and female immigrants. This is seen when Lewis physically attacks Tanty after hearing rumors that wives sleep with the milkman, which leaves him feeling insecure. It is crucial to understand that English women were highly valued and served as a symbol of status and competition for West Indian men. To them, possessing an English woman was a coveted prize and impressing others with this conquest was important. The term “skin” used by the men reflects their sexual desire and objectification of these women.
Meanwhile, the West Indian women in the novel are completely excluded from any mention of sexuality and find themselves at the lowest position in the power struggle, just as Tanty was mistreated for being a suspected victim. Moses even cautions Lewis against harming her because “the women in this country are not like Jamaica, you know. They have rights over here, and they are always advocating for something.” (Selvon 69) The patriarchal dynamic between husband and wife that existed in Jamaica is viewed as more progressive in Britain, as Moses points out that “they have rights over here.” Tanty eventually leaves Lewis, leaving us to contemplate if this outcome would be possible in Jamaica and how the family dynamic changes in a more progressive society. Despite not being central figures in The Lonely Londoners, the West Indian women share a sense of solidarity and understanding regarding their situation.
Tanty expresses her dissatisfaction with men who prefer white girls and suggests that they consider their own kind of girls as not good enough. Tanty herself becomes a victim of her environment within her relationships. The female experiences sexist oppression in addition to economic, racial, and psychological struggles. The power of solidarity between women lies in the development of relationships based on shared histories and conditions, with a focus on common oppression. Examining a woman’s identity through community and belongingness highlights the stark differences between postcolonial males and females. In Gayl Jones’ novel Corregidora, the formation of community revolves around women, particularly the heroine Ursa Corregidora. The novel explores black female sexuality and relationships with men, women, family, and colonial history. This sense of community differs greatly from that depicted in The Lonely Londoners, which specifically focuses on gender differences.
According to Carby, the black woman’s ongoing struggle with history originates from its acknowledgement of their existence. This discovery transforms into a battle for identity and self by a black woman, Ursa, and is depicted through her perspective and awareness. Ursa must overcome her struggle to uncover her personal identity by recognizing her historical and familial connections. She is conscious of her own identity and ancestry, stating, “I am Ursa Corregidora. I have tears for eyes. I was made to touch my past at an early age… Let no one pollute my music.”
I will find their trumpets. I will remove their eyes,” (Jones 77) Ursa utilizes music as a means to escape the vivid anguish of her history. Her mother constantly reminds her to “leave evidence. And you must leave evidence too. And your children must leave evidence… …we must keep it as apparent as our blood” (Jones 14). Ursa is compelled to confront and conquer the racial oppression and sexual abuse that her mother, grandmother, and great-gram experienced while enslaved on a plantation in Brazil.
Carby highlights the intersectionality of racial and sexual oppression experienced by the women in Ursa’s family. She emphasizes that it is not solely one form of oppression, but a combination of both. Furthermore, Carby reveals that the rape of black women by white men served as a means for political control. This dominance by males is evident in the accounts shared by Ursa’s family regarding Corregidora, an oppressive slave owner. They were forced into prostitution, similar to numerous other enslaved women, and subjected to repeated sexual encounters with both the plantation owner and his Caucasian spouse.
Ursa’s mother was raped by her own father, Corregidora, who impregnated Ursa’s grandmother. Ursa’s mother believed it was important to preserve these stories even though the evidence was destroyed. However, the act of reproduction itself requires the Black woman to submit to her male oppressor, creating a contradiction. Carby explains that Black women simultaneously fight alongside Black men against racism and struggle with Black men over sexism. (63) Ursa not only resisted Mutt’s persistent demand for her to stop singing the blues, but she also became unable to have children after Mutt pushed her down the stairs.
The anxiety experienced by the Corregidora women about not being able to pass down their legacies and potentially breaking the solidarity of their shared history is a whirlwind of emotion. Ursa realizes that in order to bear witness to the atrocities of the Corregidora tale and protect her voice, self, and historical location, she must find a way to incorporate these ancestral lessons into her own life story. However, this task is not easy, as it takes Ursa forty-eight years to find that balance as the novel progresses.
Beyond the solidarity that exists among women with the last name Corregidora, there is a lingering bond of sisterhood in Ursa’s relationships with other women. One of these women is Cat, who became Ursa’s friend after Ursa left Mutt due to the attack. Cat’s friendship with Ursa also becomes complicated as Ursa starts her life without Mutt. Cat tried to persuade Ursa not to marry Tadpole and cautioned against entering into another relationship with a man so soon, possibly due to her own newly discovered sexual orientation.
However, she observes that Ursa is haunted by her past and remarks, “It appears that you’re not singing the past, you’re humming it. We all bear the repercussions of something. We are marked by the history of others as well as our own” (Jones 49). Cat urges Ursa to live with her and embrace independence as a woman, just as Cat does with her own business. Cat rejects the idea of being involved with a man any longer because she refuses to submit to domination and instead uses Jeffy as a symbol of resistance against her sexual oppression.
Sexuality and the desire for love and sexual expression are important themes in this text. In relation to belongingness, both Ursa and May Alice yearn for love and connection, but they are reluctant to confront the oppression they face because they are Black. Ursa, who experienced unwanted sexual advances from Jeffy herself, admits to feeling disturbed by homosexuality, yet there is a lingering curiosity about it throughout the novel. It is not until she reunites with Jeffy at the end of the story that she recalls the sisterhood she had with Cat and considers visiting her. Another character, May Alice, a childhood friend of Ursa, also uses her sexuality as a means to find a sense of belonging.
She engages in sexual activity with a local boy multiple times. Despite the boy not reciprocating her feelings, she encourages Ursa to engage in the same behavior because it provides pleasure. Eventually, May Alice becomes pregnant and tells Ursa that she will eventually enjoy it as well. In response, Ursa confidently declares that it will never happen to her. This relationship not only explores the comparison of sexual experiences and the desire for belonging, but also highlights the solidarity and sense of belonging in same-gender relationships.
It also supports Carby’s idea of sisterhood through “shared victimization”. The bonds formed in the female friendships portrayed in the novel illustrate the disparities in the struggles faced by men and women when it comes to sexuality, while highlighting the similarities in terms of camaraderie and community. Although Corregidora has a more developed storyline compared to The Lonely Londoners, it is crucial to examine one significant event that occurs towards the end of this plot-driven novel.
Ursa recounts her life story over a twenty-two year period, and ultimately finds herself alone at a bar in Kentucky where she continues to sing the blues. Unexpectedly, she encounters Mutt, and despite the passage of time, her love for him persists and she has forgiven him. The central question remains whether she has transformed and is now ready to let go of the past and shape her own destiny. In a significant turn of events, she acquiesces to Mutt’s desires and engages in oral pleasure for the first time. This moment holds significance not only because she prioritizes his satisfaction over her own, but also because it defies the expectations imposed by her mother and societal pressure to procreate.
Ursa puts aside her shared experiences and histories to conquer her own and conquer love. According to Bell Hooks, women need to work through hostility to achieve understanding and solidarity in order to free themselves from sexist socialization that discourages confrontation. Ursa works through her hostility in the novel by confronting conflicts with Mutt, Tadpole, Cat, Jeffy, her mother, and grandmother.
Ursa is asserting her independence in this situation and refusing to be controlled. She will continue to sing, remember, and embrace her identity as a woman from Corregidora. However, she is now free from the limitations imposed on her by the past. Ursa chooses not to harm Mutt like her great-grandmother did to Corregidora. She reflects, “In a moment of intense emotion, I understood what it meant…and I believe he may have understood too.” (Jones 212) This decision sets her apart from her great-grandmother, as she openly expresses her desire for a man who won’t cause her harm. In the end, she becomes a heroine by triumphing over her losses and adversities and finding her own sense of self.
Ursa’s development of identity in Against Race can be understood through Gilroy’s explanation that consciousness of identity is strengthened by the belief that it is not solely the result of one person’s audacity, but a product of shared experiences linked to place, location, language, and mutuality (Gilroy 100). This analysis is applied to two postcolonial novels, The Lonely Londoners by Sam Selvon and Corregidora by Gayl Jones, in order to explore the relationship between community formation, belonging, and gender and sexuality. By comparing these novels, we can examine how solidarity contributes to the establishment of social and historical structures. Selvon’s novel offers insights into the experiences of West Indian male immigrants in the 1950s, while Jones focuses on the narrative of a child of slavery during the early to mid-twentieth century, with a particular emphasis on women.
In spite of being written in different historical and geographical settings, it is essential to acknowledge that each character in both novels experienced their own forms of oppression and managed to maintain unity in some way to overcome or endure them. According to Gilroy, this aspect of identity, referred to as solidarity, entails the use of interconnectedness and distinction as the foundation for producing social action (Gilroy “Pitfalls”, 229). The sense of identity for the immigrants and the women of the Corregidora family was derived from this combination of connectedness and difference, allowing them to gather a sense of self.
The various factors that have shaped each of them into a strong Black individual include their relationships with others, their personal histories, and the conditions they have faced. Moses emphasizes the impact that people can have on one another, stating, “People in this world don’t know how other people does affect their lives.” (Selvon 76)
Works Cited
The text above includes information on various sources related to feminist and cultural studies. It mentions authors such as Carby, Hazel V., Gilroy, Paul, Harb, Sirene, Hooks, Bell, Jones, Gayl, and Selvon, Sam. The sources mentioned include books and articles on topics such as black feminism, postcolonial perspectives, and cultural studies.
