Higher education opportunities have experienced substantial growth in the past decade. This is evident from the increasing number of colleges and universities offering a diverse array of degrees and certificates. Concurrently, enrollment rates at these institutions have risen, prompting colleges to establish campuses outside urban areas in order to meet demand. Consequently, individuals of various age groups, including those in their fifties, can now earn academic qualifications from these educational establishments. Additionally, initiatives have been implemented to tackle gender disparities within higher education.
In today’s society, women now have more opportunities for higher education than in the past. This access is anticipated to expand further with the development of online and virtual learning. Nevertheless, even with these advancements, achieving equal opportunities is still a difficult task. Although steps are being taken to tackle this problem, there are still crucial issues that need to be resolved. Among them is the notable cost associated with tuition and fees, which hinder numerous prospective students from pursuing their educational aspirations due to financial limitations.
The opportunities available in colleges and universities in Kenya exclude a significant number of individuals who only completed primary school, as the KCSE certificate is a mandatory prerequisite. Additionally, the majority of campuses are situated in urban regions, limiting access for those living in rural areas. Furthermore, the growing number of Kenyans seeking higher education in nearby Uganda poses considerable challenges, including missed economic prospects, potential brain drain, and loss of revenue. Urgent measures need to be taken by the government to address these concerns and work towards the realization of Vision 2030.
Access and equity are significant issues in the delivery of higher education in Kenya due to the country’s need for highly qualified manpower to achieve Vision 2030 and compete with technological giants like China. Kenya has made commendable progress in providing higher education, starting with restricting degree programs to the four main University colleges.
Statistics show an increase in the number of colleges offering courses, with improved access through extra mural centers in Kenyan towns. This has resulted in more Kenyans having nearby colleges that offer degree, diploma, or certificate programs. The provision of higher education has become more equitable, with improvements in traditionally non-equitable areas such as gender. More women now have access to tertiary institutions and are enrolling in courses that were previously dominated by men.
Despite the mentioned achievements, access and equity in education have not been completely realized. The country needs to urgently address concerns like the low transition rate from primary to secondary school, costly alternative programs, and the considerable number of Kenyan students studying in Uganda (Mbalu, 2007). Since gaining independence in 1963, Kenya has prioritized ensuring top-notch education and training.
The increase in population and demand for more educational choices is the primary cause of this situation. Additionally, there has been an emphasis on cultivating skilled individuals to address the country’s development requirements. However, ever since the 8-4-4 education system was introduced in 1985, the Kenyan government has encountered a two-fold dilemma: reducing education expenditure as part of Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) while simultaneously expanding educational options for Kenyan children.
Despite ongoing efforts to invest in education, Kenya has not achieved universal enrollment in primary and secondary schools for both genders. The country continues to face substantial challenges concerning equity and access. Therefore, it is crucial to address the issue of numerous Kenyan students who do not have access to secondary education every year. Additionally, it is necessary to consider the future of approximately 80% of KCSE graduates who are unable to attend university annually.
Educational planners and policymakers in Kenya must comprehend the factors influencing secondary school graduates’ decision to pursue higher education in neighboring countries like Uganda. They should consider variables including tuition fees, cultural disparities, geographic proximity, socio-economic circumstances, and the general environment. These factors can potentially affect the accessibility and equality of education for Kenyan households.
The study on Access and Equity in Higher education in Kenya will provide scholars with additional knowledge. It is important for the government to address the issue of a high number of children in public primary schools who do not continue to secondary school and higher learning institutions. This is crucial because these children will eventually form a workforce that lacks necessary skills, which can hinder the achievement of Vision 2030. Formal schooling has significantly grown over the past century.
The global primary net enrollment ratio (NER) has reached an estimated 86 percent in recent years (Bloom, 2006). Various international initiatives aim to achieve universal education. At the World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990, the global community pledged to attain universal primary education (UPE), significantly reduce illiteracy by 2015, and eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education (World declaration on Education For All, 1990).
The past century has seen a rise in educational opportunities, leading to a decrease in illiteracy rates and an increase in the number of individuals completing primary, secondary, or tertiary education. However, achieving equal access to high-quality secondary schooling remains challenging. According to Bloom (2006), meeting the goal of Universal Primary Education by 2015 seems unlikely given the current rate of progress. It is estimated that around 299 million school-age children will still lack access to primary or secondary education in 2015 (Bloom & Cohen, 2005).
According to the UBASE project, various research has been conducted on the global achievement of universal primary and secondary education. This research suggests that achieving universal primary and secondary education is urgent and achievable. However, there are significant obstacles that need to be overcome, innovative educational practices that need to be developed, and increased spending on education necessary to achieve this goal (Bloom & Cohen 2005). Despite significant progress in education worldwide, there are still shortcomings and disparities evident in current educational data.
According to Bloom (year not mentioned), the number of students in secondary school has increased by a factor of eight over the past 50 years, rising from around 50 million to 414 million (calculated using UNESCO online data). Glewwe and Zhao (2006) reported that developing countries devoted approximately $82 billion to primary schooling in 2000. Furthermore, Binder (2006) approximated that annual expenditure on secondary education in developing countries amounted to $9 billion.
Multiple recent studies have been conducted on the cost and financing of education in Kenya, with support from the Government of Japan and the World Bank (1995), as well as organizations like UNICEF (1994), ODA (1995), and UNESCO (1994). The findings from these studies have had a substantial impact on access to, quality of, and efficiency in education in Kenya. The government has also recognized these findings through their statements (GoK, 1995b; 1997; MoE, 1996).
Research funded by the World Bank has shown that government policy and commitment have a significant impact on access to public primary education for low-income individuals (White, 2004). This finding is supported by studies conducted in Ghana by Glewwe (1999), as well as similar research conducted in Indonesia and India. These case studies, along with production function studies, indicate that government policy plays a larger role in determining education access and outcomes in developing countries compared to developed countries (Filmer, 1999).
The completion rates for primary education have increased over time. In 1999, the rate was 45.8 percent, and by 2003 it had risen to 57.2 percent. However, despite this improvement, the rates still indicate a significant amount of wasted resources in primary education.
Out of the total enrollment of 949,787 students in Standard 1 in 1996, only slightly more than half (543,559 students) completed their primary education by 2003. This translates to a completion rate of 57.2 percent.
According to Ministry of Education Data from 2006, girls accounted for a completion rate of 58.4 percent while boys accounted for a slightly lower rate of 56.7 percent.
According to data from the Ministry of Education, the transition rate from primary to secondary school in 2003 was the highest it had been since 1992, reaching 46 percent. The Ministry has plans to implement new policies in order to improve secondary education and accommodate a greater number of students. Furthermore, they are developing a bursary program that focuses on addressing educational expenses related to poverty (Ministry of Education Data, 2006).
The Ministry of Education Data in 2006 shows that there has been a 9.7% increase in the number of secondary schools from 3,166 in 1999 to 4,071 in 2003. Additionally, enrollment has also seen significant growth with a 29.8% increase over the past five years. The number of students has risen from 695,025 in 1999 to 902,276 in 2003.
In 2003, the completion rates at secondary school dropped to 89 percent. Boys accounted for 90 percent of these rates, while girls made up 89 percent. However, there is no significant difference in completion rates between boys and girls at this level. Dropping out is attributed to high schooling costs, an unfriendly school environment (especially for girls), and a perceived lack of future educational benefits (Wossman, 2003). According to statistics from the Central Bureau of Statistics, the number of students admitted to local private and public universities declined from 81,491 to 79,735 between 2005 and 2006. This decline represents a decrease of approximately 2.5 percent.
Admission to Ugandan universities has increased, with approximately 21,000 Kenyan students choosing to pursue their education there. One reason for this is the affordability of education in Uganda compared to Kenya at all levels, including primary school and university. This is primarily due to the stronger value of the Kenyan shilling. As a result, Kenyan parents annually allocate Sh2.3 billion to secure placements for their children in higher education institutions in Uganda, taking advantage of the lower expenses available there. Additionally, many Kenyans are attracted by the presence of “A” level education in Uganda as Kenya discontinued this system when implementing the 8-4-4 system back in 1984.
The education system in Uganda follows a 7-4-2 model, with seven years of primary school, four years of secondary school, and two years of high school before university (Business Daily, Africa, 2007). Currently, there are 21,000 Kenyan students studying in Uganda. Of these, 6,000 are enrolled in tertiary education while the remaining 15,000 attend secondary schools. The reason for choosing Uganda over Tanzania is that Ugandan schools use English as the language of instruction whereas Swahili is widely spoken in Tanzania. Furthermore, admission requirements at our public universities have exacerbated this situation.
Currently, only 10% of eligible students enroll in local public universities, as admission is determined by bed-capacity. Both public and private universities can only accommodate 25% of Form Four graduates. The limited number of university spots results in high cut-off points. Even private universities face constraints on the number of students they can admit (Dr Mwiria, 2009). Out of the 250,000 students who obtain a mean grade of C+ in the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE), only 10,000 secure places in public universities (Mbalu, Joint Admissions Board, 2007).
The existing literature has primarily examined the influence of transition rates from primary school to secondary school and how it impacts access and fairness in higher education. Additionally, it has investigated the cost of education as a decisive factor in the current patterns of higher education provision. Considering these aspects, it is essential for the Government to address the predicament of the significant number of children in public primary schools who are unable to continue to secondary school and consequently miss out on attaining higher education. This is particularly important because these children will eventually constitute a workforce that lacks necessary skills. Therefore, the realization of Vision 2030 may be hindered.
The study of education outcomes often focuses on supply-side factors, but it is important to also consider demand-side factors when determining these outcomes. In this context, attending school is seen as an input, while successfully completing school and acquiring desired knowledge and skills are considered desirable outcomes. The desired outcome in this argument is the acquisition of necessary skills that will contribute to the country’s goals for VISION 2030. Both of these outcomes depend on various demand factors at the household level and within the wider social environment (Journal of Economics Literature, 2000).
When evaluating education outcomes, it is important to consider supply and demand factors. This approach enables a thorough assessment and policy development. Education economists have examined various aspects of education’s supply and demand to determine the factors that influence education outcomes. These models typically involve households as the demand side and learning institutions as the supply side, recognizing that households also contribute to providing education.
Many households desire more education because it brings private economic benefits through gaining human capital, as well as social and cultural advantages. However, there is a cost for households, especially those in poverty or rural areas, due to restrictions in income, assets, and credit. These limitations have been acknowledged by White (2004). Moreover, cultural factors hinder female education and formal employment later in life, which further affects the demand for education. The quality of schools and learning outcomes also play a role in both the supply and demand for education, similar to other goods and services (White, 2004).
The demand for education is influenced by various factors, with families considering the advantages of schooling in comparison to the associated expenses. These expenses encompass direct costs like fees, supplies, and uniforms, as well as indirect ones like the reduction in household labor. When families perceive that the benefits of education outweigh the costs, it can result in an upsurge in the demand for education, even among impoverished and rural households (Glewwe 2002). The provided conceptual framework visually demonstrates this argument. Notably, there has been a significant increase in enrollment in primary schools following the introduction of the free primary Education program.
As a result, there is a significant increase in the number of graduates seeking admission to secondary schools as these pupils complete their Std 8. The literature review confirms that a majority of these pupils do not progress to secondary schools, as demonstrated by the chart provided below. The table and chart presented above display the distribution of Kenyan students in Ugandan institutions in 2007, with the likelihood of higher figures in subsequent years. Currently, the Government has displayed limited commitment towards the development and expansion of youth polytechnics. Therefore, it becomes imperative to ascertain the future prospects of these thousands of pupils.
Access and equality arguments lose their significance if a significant number of Kenyans remain excluded. Additionally, the problem is worsened by the Government’s recent decision to convert middle level colleges, such as Kenya Polytechnic and Kenya Science Teachers College, into university constituent colleges (Mbalu, 2007). With the introduction of free primary education and partially free secondary education, local higher education institutions will face more pressure to accept more students. This will result in an increasing number of local students attending Ugandan universities.
The limited bed-capacity in local public universities is causing only 10% of qualified students to enroll. This means that both public and private universities can only accommodate 25% of Form Four graduates (Mbalu, 2007). Consequently, Kenyan students are currently contributing over 2.3 billion Kenya Shillings annually solely to the Ugandan economy (Business Daily, Africa, 2007). The country cannot bear this financial burden and the resulting brain drain any longer. It is crucial for the government to promptly address these pressing issues. One possible solution is the construction of more universities to tackle this problem.
Construction is currently in progress for a university in Mombasa that will have the capacity to accommodate 5,000 students (Mbalu, 2007). Nevertheless, Kenya is encountering difficulties in its education system due to varying preferences of neighboring countries like Uganda and Tanzania as the integration of the East African Community progresses. While these countries favor the “A” level system of education, Kenyans prefer the “O” level system. Hence, it is essential for the country to establish a feedback mechanism to collect input from the Kenyan population regarding their preferred Education System. This matter has been raised in multiple forums but consistently downplayed by authorities.
The Business Daily (2007) states that for the East Africa Community to function effectively, it is crucial to modify Kenya’s system, which will require significant time and financial investment. Mwiria (2007) suggests that the government should focus on expanding local universities to make education more affordable in Kenya. However, solely concentrating on universities could have negative consequences for the nation. Therefore, equal attention should be given to all levels of tertiary education.
Addressing issues of equity and access requires a critical evaluation of the parallel programme, introduced as a solution for higher education access. However, this programme has received backlash from certain sectors of society and political leaders who argue that it is expensive and benefits only the wealthy (Daily Nation, Aug 24th 2008). Consequently, it is imperative for the Government or other interested parties to research concerns regarding the future prospects of primary school dropouts who do not take KCPE exams.
The study examines the fate of students who drop out of school before or after taking KCSE exams. It also investigates the gap in higher education provision in Kenya, which leads to a large number of Kenyan students seeking education in neighboring countries, particularly in Uganda. The results of this study will provide insights into the equity issues that prevent many young Kenyans from pursuing higher education and will address concerns regarding educational access. Additionally, it aims to retain more Kenyans in local universities and colleges, thus restoring national pride.
Amidst the recent dispute between Kenya and Uganda regarding the small Migingo Island, the author of this paper expresses their willingness to conduct research on the topic when funding becomes available.
REFERENCES
- Bruns, Barbara, Alain M, and Ramahatra R. (2003). “Achieving Universal Primary Education by 2015: A Chance for Every Child. ” World Bank Policy Study.
- Glewwe, Paul. (2002). “Schools and Skills in Developing Countries: Education Policies and Socioeconomic Outcomes. ” Journal of Economic Literature 40:436-482.
