Albert Bandura’s definition of observational learning involves the identification of a model and mimicking their behavior. The replication of observed behavior is influenced by the consequences experienced by the model, which can be positive or negative. This concept is also known as vicarious reinforcement or punishment. If an observer finds a model appealing, they are more likely to imitate their actions. Observers may also acquire a behavior without immediately using it, choosing to employ it when appropriate.
The process of observational learning involves observing and imitating specific behavioral patterns and acquiring emotional responses such as fear, anxiety, or pleasure. This type of learning consists of four steps: attention, retention, production, and motivation. Attention is the first step in Bandura’s Social Learning Theory and refers to the information we notice. The degree of attention given is influenced by different factors that can either enhance or diminish its extent.
These factors that contribute to a learner’s abilities are influenced by their sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, and past reinforcement. These sensory capacities include visual acuity, color discrimination, pure tone hearing, speech recognition, and sound localization, which determine the level of attention that can be given. To provide an example, a teacher may use a symbolic model of film to teach the art of dance. However, in order for students to pay attention and effectively learn, they must utilize their sensory capacities.
According to researchers Baron and Byrne (2004), arousal level affects the quality of attention and can range from fear and aggression to excitement and sexual experiences. They have identified two levels of arousal: heightened arousal and sexual arousal. The researchers have observed that heightened arousal, if it continues beyond the initial situation and is mistakenly perceived as anger, can lead to increased aggression. Mild levels of sexual arousal, on the other hand, were found to decrease aggression, while higher levels were found to increase aggressive behaviors.
According to Saul McLeod (2007), attention level can be influenced by factors such as the Excitation Transfer Theory and the Fight or Flight Theory. McLeod also explains that perceptual set is a predisposition to notice certain features of a stimulus while disregarding others. This concept directly relates to the definition of attention and one’s sensory capacities. Perceptual set functions through the ‘Selector’ and ‘Interpreter’ methods.
Firstly, the perceiver has certain expectations and focuses attention on particular aspects of the sensory data: this is referred to as a ‘Selector’. Secondly, the perceiver knows how to classify, understand, and name selected data and what inferences to draw from it, which is called an ‘Interpreter’. Retention, as stated by Ormrod (2004), is a variable that affects social learning theory. It involves learning from a model to remember observed behavior. Ormrod (2004) also suggested that one simple way to remember what has been seen is through rehearsal.
The basic definition of rehearsal is to repeatedly practice something until it can be done without thinking. According to Hergenhahn and Olson (2001), information obtained through observation must be remembered in order to be helpful. To remember this information, one can use symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, and motor rehearsal. These processes allow the information to be recalled and utilized long after the initial learning occurred.
Decker (1984) defined symbolic coding as the act of organizing and simplifying the various components of a modeled performance into verbal symbols, which in turn guide future performances. This process improves behavior modeling and training. One example of this is the use of mental images to recall and process previous visual experiences. Cognitive organization refers to blending existing and new information in order to represent more recent knowledge. Motor rehearsal involves executing remembered observations stored in memory.
Memory is the process by which knowledge is encoded, stored, and later retrieved. To retrieve and enact behavior that has been observed, the information must be stored in a location where it can be recalled. Thus, the retention process involves memory. The sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory all play a part in recalling visual information that has been observed. Ormrod (2004) also pointed out that memory is used to refer to a specific “location” where learned information is kept. Additionally, rehearsal can help maintain information in working memory indefinitely.
According to Bandura, the reproduction process dictates the level to which what has been learned is converted into performance. He also noted that after information is cognitively stored, it can be covertly retrieved, rehearsed, and reinforced long after observational learning has occurred (Olsen 2005). After observing, humans can learn much of the behavior by forming symbols and abstract concepts. This means that once attention is paid and the information is retained, individuals can create symbols or patterns of the observed behavior that was retained.
In a classroom, a child is taught a dance by his teacher. The child observes the teacher performing the dance and creates verbal or imaginary symbols to represent what the teacher is showing. Through the retention process, the child can later reproduce the dance. After practicing what he has seen, the child can continue to perform the dance even after it was initially taught. Bandura acknowledged that while an individual may have the cognitive ability to imitate what they have learned, they also need the necessary motor skills to actually reproduce the behaviors.
Bandura believes that for an observer to replicate a behavior they have observed, they need both cognitive and physical ability. The observer must also engage in cognitive rehearsal, comparing their behavior to their mental representation of the observed experience. This process involves the observer attempting to match the behavior as it was taught by the model and quickly correcting any discrepancies. According to Bandura, this rehearsal continues until there is a match between the observer’s version and the model’s. Additionally, Bandura disagrees with Miller and Skinner, stating that reinforcement is not necessary for learning to occur.
According to the statement, reinforcement is a performance variable where people are either actively or passively motivated to perform a specific task or exhibit a desired behavior. However, in observational learning, individuals imitate behavior without any manipulation. In the BoBo doll experiment, two groups of children observed others being either punished or rewarded for hitting the doll. The children who witnessed positive reinforcement repeated the behavior, while those who observed punishment did not repeat it. However, children who saw neither punishment nor rewards continued to imitate what they observed.
According to the experiment, children who have developed observational learning abilities cannot stop themselves from learning what they have observed. This suggests that individuals will imitate what they have seen, even without the presence of punishment or rewards. Additionally, the learner may exhibit learning that occurred earlier through observation, which is known as delayed modeling. In contrast, Skinner and Miller argue that reinforcement automatically strengthens or weakens behavior and aids in learning.
Bandura argues that learning through response is a cognitive process, and mere learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior. The last component of Bandura’s observational learning is motivation, which is a mental state that stimulates the inclination to act in a specific manner (Ormrod, 2008). It essentially comprises internal factors guiding behavior. Motivation plays a crucial role in determining what individuals learn and what they will persist in learning.
Bandura’s bobo doll experiment revealed that various groups were driven to undertake specific actions based on the consequences they witnessed the model facing. Those who did not observe the outcomes were motivated to imitate the behavior because of promised rewards (Schacter, Gilbert and Wegner, 2009). Motivation can be categorized into two types: extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation is influenced by external stimuli and expected rewards such as money, recognition, and pleasure. In contrast, intrinsic motivation arises when the activity itself is rewarding, captivating, and satisfying (Schacter et al., 2009).
According to Robbins & Judge (2011), motivation plays a crucial role in promoting initiative and inspiring individuals to imitate the behavior demonstrated by a role model. Motivation levels are influenced by an individual’s self-efficacy, which refers to their belief in successfully accomplishing tasks. Individuals with high self-efficacy are more confident in reproducing learned behaviors, whereas those with low self-efficacy may reduce their efforts or abandon the attempt if the behavior is too challenging to replicate (Ormrod, 2008).
According to Bandura and other cognitive theorists, the level of enthusiasm children have for learning a dance in a classroom setting can vary. This variation is influenced by their familiarity with the dance and how they perceive their own dancing abilities. Various factors like past experiences, encouragement from others, and observing others’ experiences play a vital role in shaping self-efficacy and motivation (Ormrod, 2008).
Competencies are demonstrated by individuals who have successfully attempted specific activities over time. Through trial and error, their confidence in their abilities grows. Small failures become opportunities for learning and progress towards greater success. Encouragement and praise from others are powerful motivators, particularly when the task performed was a success.
Persons are motivated to specific actions by observing the accomplishments and failures of others, particularly when they perceive them as having similar competencies. If the model successfully completes a difficult task after multiple attempts, the learner will develop the belief that they can also achieve that task (Ormrod, 2008). According to Bandura, individuals model behavior in various ways. However, for modeling to be effective, all four factors – attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation – must be applied (Ormrod, 2008).
