The domestication of plants and animals had a profound impact on the development and structure of communities, replacing the nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle with settled farming villages. The characteristics of these communities varied depending on factors such as local ecology, available resources, and the specific time period in which they were established. In the Middle East, this transition to an agricultural way of life can be categorized into four distinct stages, starting with the utilization of regional plant and animal resources by hunter-gatherers during the Kebaran period and Geometric Kebaran.
During the Natufian period, architecture emerged as a significant element as communities shifted from hunting-gathering to village life. This period witnessed the appearance of material culture and the discovery of artifacts like sea shells and beads, which were exchanged over long distances from the Red and Mediterranean Seas. Although agriculture was not yet practiced during the Natufian period, the domestication of dogs was observed at Hayonim Terrace and Mallaha, as evidenced by the presence of dog remains alongside human remains.
During the Early Neolithic period of Middle Eastern history, people started living in villages and adopting agriculture as a means of subsistence. Communal structures emerged during this period, fostering a sense of community planning and direction. These structures were used for ritual functions, providing evidence of community activity. In the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period, settlements significantly increased in size and there was a shift from round houses to rectangular ones.
The reshaping of villages resulted in increased density and demonstrated the community’s proactive approach towards planning and future growth. Abus Hureyra was one such village, housing approximately 5000 individuals in 1440 houses during the Late Neolithic period. The formation of densely populated communities possibly led to the establishment of a social hierarchy, emphasizing the significance of human interaction and potential tension among neighbors and social groups.
Plant domestication began during the Early Neolithic, but it was in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period that crops like wheat, barley, lentil, peas, and legumes were found to be domesticated. These grains showed increased size and resilience. In addition to this, animal domestication took place with sheep being domesticated in Turkey, Iraq, and Iran. At the same time, there was a noticeable decrease in animal size and an increase in discoveries of animals in unfamiliar habitats.
During the Late Neolithic period, there was a decline in large villages in the Middle East. This coincided with a shift towards grazing domesticated animals and smaller village sizes as well as dispersed populations. Furthermore, hunting decreased in importance for sustenance during this time, with Late Neolithic societies heavily relying on plants that were domesticated earlier.
The origin of agriculture in Europe can be traced back to the usage of domesticated plants and animals from the Middle East. This agricultural shift occurred as incoming farmers started displacing the existing hunter-gatherer societies in Europe, particularly the complex societies of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. These sophisticated hunter-gatherers are often accused of adopting domestication, gradually transforming their communal lives. As a result, conflicting ideas about the existence of domestication emerged in Europe.
An instance of this is the interaction between Linear Band Keramik cultures and Mesolithic groups. LBK’s utilized plants and animals from the Middle East and lived in villages with large community structures. They also engaged in trade with other Mesolithic groups, which sometimes resulted in violence. In Mesoamerica, the domestication of plants had minimal impact on these hunter-gatherer societies, except for enhancing the sustainability of the community. The Teosinte, a wild grass discovered in the Mexican highlands, is the precursor to Maize, also known as corn.
The revolution of maize and squash agriculture started spreading north to the present-day United States. About 3000 years ago, during the Late Archaic period, intensive maize agriculture commenced in the American Southwest. These societies practicing agriculture resided in spacious Villages, constructing vast terraces and canals to support their crops. However, the theory of optimal foraging offers a better explanation for the diverse distribution of domestication, as ecological factors also played a role in its dissemination. In conclusion, the intricate process of domestication spread gradually over time.
In the southwest United States, hunter-gatherers adopted maize agriculture from northern farmers. Some of these groups formed large villages, while others lived in temporary environments. This contrasts with the Eastern Coast of North America, where hunter-gatherer groups domesticated several plant species before maize agriculture became common. It is possible that this type of agricultural structure preceded the establishment of actual villages.
The process of agriculture was adapted to local societies in various ways and did not have immediate effects on those societies, unlike what happened in Europe where indigenous people actively participated in agriculture. In Africa, it appears that the domestication of animals preceded plant domestication, and these animals were successfully integrated into pastoral societies, which were mobile in nature. Around 8000 years ago, there were evidence of domesticated animals in these societies that did not rely on plants.
Another interesting occurrence in New Guinea was the creation of pottery in the form of small jars with imprinted designs. Many communities in New Guinea had independently domesticated crops such as yams, bananas, and possibly sugarcane. However, they did not domesticate pigs, which were important in gaining power. Unlike other cases of domestication, the process in New Guinea is not well understood. The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture was slow and only involved plants.
The utilization of Ground Stone Tool Technology and the adoption of pottery became prevalent, despite pottery lacking practical utility in the agricultural system at that period. Like Africa, pottery emerged prior to agricultural advancements. Hunter-Gatherer communities in the Middle East and Africa also inhabited extensive settlements and constructed dwellings. The domestication of plants and animals took place concurrently, leading to a population rise.
According to a current theory, the development of large villages is directly connected to the domestication process. The Neolithic period saw significant changes in human society with the introduction of agriculture and the domestication of animals. Agriculture emerged gradually in various regions including China, Africa, Eastern Asia, Mesoamerica, the Ande’s, and New Guinea. While villages were established before agriculture in China, Africa, and Eastern Asia; this was not the case for Mesoamerica, the Ande’s, and New Guinea. Additionally, pottery production preceded domestication in Africa and China but occurred at a later stage in other regions.
Plants were domesticated in various regions and time periods. In the Middle East and New Guinea, they were domesticated prior to animals, while in Africa and the Andes, they were domesticated after animals. However, in China, plants and animals were domesticated simultaneously. The process of agriculture and domestication encompasses multiple factors including biology, human nature, ecology, and societal organization. The adaptability necessary for communities to shift towards plant and animal domestication is evident throughout this process.
