Economic International Legal Considerations Essay, Research Paper
International Legal Considerations
This chapter covers a broad scope of ordinances, processs, and patterns that fall into three classs: ordinances that exporters must follow to follow with U.S. jurisprudence; processs that exporters should follow to guarantee a successful export dealing; and plans and certain revenue enhancement processs that open new markets or supply fiscal benefits to exporters.
Export Regulations
General Introduction
The Export Administration Regulations ( EAR ) regulate the export and reexport of points for national security, non-proliferation, foreign policy, and short supply grounds. The Department of Commerce’s Bureau of Export Administration ( BXA ) has taken of import stairss to take unneeded obstructions to exporting, including completion of U.S. regulative reform attempt and export control liberalisations. Working closely with the exporting community, BXA has simplified the EAR, particularly for those companies new to exporting. In add-on, export controls have been liberalized on many merchandises sold by U.S. companies around the universe, consistent with national security and foreign policy concerns.
A comparatively little per centum of exports and reexports requires the entry of a license application to BXA. License demands are dependent upon an point’s proficient features, the finish, the terminal usage, and the terminal user. Determining whether a licence is required for export is easier under the freshly drafted ordinances which consolidate licence demands antecedently scattered throughout the ordinances. Once a categorization has been determined, exporters may utilize a individual chart to find if licences are needed for a state. The revised ordinances include replies to often asked inquiries, elaborate bit-by-bit instructions for happening out if a dealing is capable to the ordinances, how to bespeak a trade good categorization or consultative sentiment, and how to use for a licence.
The EAR groups points ( trade goods, package, and engineering ) into 10 classs each incorporating several entries. These entries are the Export Control Classification Numbers ( ECCN ) . These entries are in Supplemental N0. 1 to portion 774 of the EAR, which is the Commerce Control List ( CCL ) . The CCL and the Country Chart, Supplement No. 1 to portion 738 taken together, define points capable to export controls based entirely on the proficient parametric quantities of the point and the state of ultimate finish. Items that are listed on the CCL but do non necessitate a licence by ground of the Country Chart and points classified as EAR99 ( see 734.3 ( degree Celsius ) of the EAR entitled “Scope of the EAR” ) are designated as “NLR,” or “no licence required. ” ;
All states are non treated in the same manner under the EAR because different states present different national security, non-proliferation, or foreign policy considerations for the United States. A license demand may be based on the terminal usage or stop user in a dealing, chiefly for proliferation grounds. Part 744 of the EAR describes such demands and relevant licensing policies and includes both limitations on points and limitations on the activities of U.S. individuals.
The EAR covers more than exports. Items capable to the Ear are by and large controlled for reexport from one foreign state to another. A comparatively little per centum of exports and reexports requires an application to BXA for a licence. Many points are non on the CCL or, if on the CCL, require a licence merely to a limited figure of states. Other minutess may be covered by one or more License Exceptions in the EAR, portion 740. However, a licence is required for virtually all exports to embargoed finishs such as Cuba. Part 746 of the EAR describes embargoed finishs and refers to certain extra controls imposed by the Office of Foreign Assets Controls of the Treasury Department.
Sometimes the Ear are referred to as “double usage” ordinances. The term “double usage” refers to points that can be used for both military and other strategic utilizations ( e.g. , atomic ) and commercial applications. It besides refers to points with entirely civil utilizations. The term is besides used to separate the range of the Ear from points covered by the ordinances of other bureaus. For illustration, the U.S. Department of State controls exports of arms and military related points on the U.S. Munitions List, while the Department of Energy and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission control certain points for atomic grounds. For more information on the control of bureaus other than BXA, see Supplement No. 3 to portion 730 of the EAR.
Stairss for Using the Ear
You may first expression at portion 732 of the EAR for the stairss you follow to find your duties. Separate 734 defines the range of the EAR and excludes certain “publically available” engineering, every bit good as points decently capable to the legal power of another bureau. What is the proper categorization for your point? This information is indispensable to finding any licensing demands under the EAR. You may either sort your point on your ain harmonizing to the CCL or you may inquire BXA for aid. The Ear is structured in a manner that you should follow the stairss in order. To find whether you need a licence, see, in order, the range of the EAR ( portion 734 ) , the 10 general prohibitions ( portion 736 ) , and the license exclusions ( portion 740 ) .
General Prohibitions
The general prohibition are found in portion 736 of the EAR. The 10 general prohibitions describe certain exports, reexports, and other behavior, capable to the range of the EAR, in which you may non prosecute unless you have a licence from BXA or measure up under portion 740 of the EAR for a license exclusion from each applicable general prohibition paragraph.
License Exceptions
A license exclusion is an mandate for the export or reexport of some trade goods, engineering, or package under certain conditions. This gives you authorization to transport certain points capable to the Ear that would otherwise necessitate a licence. Eligibility for license exclusions may be based on the point to be exported or reexported, the state of ultimate finish, the terminal usage of the point, or the terminal user. If a licence exclusion is available for a peculiar dealing, you may continue with the dealing without a licence. A license exclusion does non necessitate a specific application nor blessing from the Department of Commerce. However, you are required to run into all footings, conditions, and commissariats for the usage of that license exclusion.
Using for a License and Application Processing
If an export licence is required, you must fix a Form BXA-748P, “Mulipurpose Application Form,” and subject it to BXA. The signifier can be used for bespeaking an export licence, reexports, or trade good categorizations. You may bespeak signifiers by facsimile at 202-219-9179 or by phone on 202-482-3332. You must be certain to follow the instructions on the signifier carefully. In some cases, proficient booklets and support certification must besides be included.
In reexamining specific licence applications, BXA will carry on a complete analysis of the license application along with all certification submitted in support of the application. In add-on to reexamining the point and terminal usage, BXA will see the dependability of each party to the dealing and reexamine any available intelligence information. To the maximal extent possible, BXA will do licensing determinations without referral of licence applications to other bureaus; nevertheless, BXA may confer with with other U.S. sections and bureaus sing any license application. Further information refering the reappraisal policy for assorted controls is contained in parts 742 and 750.
You may reach BXA for position of your pending enfranchisement petition, consultative sentiment, or license application. For consultative sentiment petitions, telephone 202-482-4905 or direct a facsimile to 202-219-9179. For licence applications and categorization petitions, telephone BXA’s System for Tracking Export License Applications ( STELA ) at 202-482-2752. STELA is an machine-controlled voice response system that, upon petition via any standard touch-tone telephone, will supply you with latest position on any license application pending at BXA. Requests for position may be made merely by the applier or the applicant’s agent.
Avoiding Delaies in Receiving a License
In make fulling out a licence application, rexporters normally make four mistakes that account for most holds in treating applications:
1. Failing to subscribe the application.
2. Handwriting, instead than typing the application.
3. Reacting inadequately to subdivision 22 ( J ) of the application, “Description of Commodity or Technical Data,” which calls for a description of the point or points to be exported. You must be specific, and you are encouraged to attach extra stuff to explicate the merchandise to the full.
4. Reacting inadequately to subdivision 21 of the application, where the specific terminal usage of the merchandises or proficient informations is to be described. Again, you must be specific. Answering mistily or come ining “unknown” is likely to detain the application procedure.
In an exigency, the Department of Commerce may see hastening the processing of an export licence application, but this process can non be used as a replacement for filing of an application. If you feel you qualify for exigency handling, you should reach the Exporter Counseling Division at 202-482-4811 or by mail to the:
U.S. Department of Commerce
Bureau of Export Administration
Office of Exporter Services
Exporter Counseling Division
14th Street and Constitution Avenue, NW, Room 2706
Washington, D.C. 20230
Export Clearance
If you are issued a BXA licence, or you rely on a license exclusion described in portion 740 of the EAR, you are responsible for the proper usage of that licence or license exclusion and for the public presentation of all its footings and conditions.
If you export without either a licence issued by BXA or a license exclusion, you are responsible for finding that the dealing is outside the range if the EAR or the export is designated as “No License Required. ” ;
Both the Foreign Trade Statistics Regulations of the Census Bureau ( 15 CFR portion 30 ) and the Export Administration Regulations require that the Shippers Export Declaration ( SED ) be submitted to the U.S. Government. There are exclusions to this regulation, but if you are required to subject an SED, you must fix it in conformity with the regulations of the Foreign Trade Statistics Regulations ( FTSR ) and present the figure of transcripts specified in the FTSR at the port if export. For more information about the FTSR or the SED, visit the Census Bureau online at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.census.gov/foreign-trade/www.
Records on exports must be retained for five old ages from day of the month of export, reexport, or any known recreation. For more information on export clearances, see portion 758 of the EAR. For extra information on recordkeeping, see portion 762.
Where to Get Assistance
The staring point for export licensing demands and the ordinances is the Exporter Counseling Division. BXA’s counsellors can steer you through the ordinances to find your licensing demands. They can be reached by phone at 202-48-4811 and facsimile at 202-482-3617. BXA besides maintains a Web site at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.bxa.doc.gov. The ordinances are published in volume 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations get downing at portion 730. If you wish to buy a loose-leaf version of the EAR or any electronic version of the EAR with updates, you may reach the National Technical Information Service order desk at 703-487-4630. In add-on, the Export Administration Regulations are available through the EAR Electronic Market Place on the World Wide Web at hypertext transfer protocol: //w3.access.gpo.gov/bxa.
Antidiversion, Antiboycott,
and Antitrust Requirements
Antidiversion Clause
To assist guarantee that U.S. exports go merely to lawfully authorised finishs, the U.S. authorities requires a finish control statement on transporting paperss. Under this demand, the commercial bill and measure of ladling ( or air bill of lading ) for about all commercial cargos go forthing the United States must expose a statement advising the bearer and all foreign parties ( the ultimate and intermediate consignees and buyer ) that the U.S. stuff has been licensed for export merely to certain finishs and may non be diverted contrary to U.S. jurisprudence. Exceptions to the usage of the finish control statement are cargos to Canada and intended for ingestion in Canada and cargos being made under certain general licences. Advice on the appropriate statement to be used can be provided by the Department of Commerce, an lawyer, or the cargo forwarder.
The minimal antidiversion statement for goods exported under Commerce Department authorization is: “These trade goods, engineering, or package, were exported from the United States in conformity with the Export Administration Regulations. Diversion contrary to U.S. jurisprudence is prohibited. ” ;
Antiboycott Regulations
The United States has an established policy of opposing restrictive trade patterns or boycotts fostered or imposed by foreign states against other states friendly to the United States. This policy is implemented through the antiboycott commissariats of the Export Administration Act enforced by the Department of Commerce and through the Tax Reform Act of 1977 enforced by the Department of the Treasury.
o Prohibiting U.S. bureaus or individuals from declining to make concern with blacklisted houses and boycotted friendly states pursuant to foreign boycott demands ;
o Prohibiting U.S. individuals from know aparting against, or holding to know apart against other U.S. individuals on the footing of race, faith, sex, or national beginning in order to follow with a foreign boycott ;
o Prohibiting U.S. individuals from supplying information about concern relationships with boycotted friendly foreign states or blacklisted companies in response to boycott demands ;
O Supplying for public revelation of petitions to follow with foreign boycotts; and
o Requiring U.S. individuals who receive petitions to describe reception of the petitions to the Commerce Department and unwrap publically whether they have complied with such petitions.
The antiboycott commissariats of the Export Administration Act use to all U.S. individuals, including mediators in the export procedure, every bit good as foreign subordinates that are “controlled in fact” by U.S. companies and U.S. functionaries.
The Department of Commerce’s Office of Antiboycott Compliance ( OAC ) administers the plan through on-going probes of corporate activities. OAC operates an automated boycott-reporting system supplying statistical and enforcement informations to Congress and to the populace, publishing readings of the ordinances for the affected populace, and offering nonbinding informal counsel to the private sector on specific conformity concerns. U.S. houses with inquiries about following with antiboycott ordinances should name OAC at 202-482-2381 or compose to Office of Antiboycott Compliance, Bureau of Export Administration, Room 6098, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC 20230.
Antitrust Laws
The U.S. antimonopoly Torahs reflect this state’s committedness to an economic system based on competition. They are intended to further the efficient allotment of resources by supplying consumers with goods and services at the lowest monetary value that efficient concern operations can productively offer. Assorted foreign states – including the European Union, Canada, Mexico, Japan, and Australia – besides have their ain antimonopoly Torahs that U.S. houses must follow with when exporting to such states.
The U.S. antimonopoly legislative acts do non supply a checklist of specific demands. Alternatively they set forth wide rules that are applied to the specific facts and fortunes of a concern dealing. Under the U.S. antimonopoly Torahs, some types of trade restraints, known as per Se misdemeanors, are regarded as once and for all illegal. Per Se misdemeanors include price-fixing understandings and confederacies, divisions of markets by rivals, and certain group boycotts and binding agreements.
Most restraints of trade in the United States are judged under a 2nd legal criterion known as the regulation of ground. The regulation of ground requires a screening that certain Acts of the Apostless occurred and such Acts of the Apostless had an anti-competitive consequence. Under the regulation of ground, assorted factors are considered, including concern justification, impact on monetary values and end product in the market, barriers to entry, and market portions of the parties.
In the instance of exports by U.S. houses, there are particular restrictions on the application of the per Se and regulation of ground trials by U.S. tribunals. Under Title IV of the Export Trading Company Act ( besides known as the Foreign Trade Antitrust Improvements Act ) , there must be a “direct, significant and moderately foreseeable” consequence on the domestic or import commercialism of the United States or on the export commercialism of a U.S. individual before an activity may be challenged under the Sherman Antitrust Act or the Federal Trade Commission Act ( two of the primary federal antimonopoly legislative acts ) . This proviso clarifies the peculiar fortunes under which the abroad activities of U.S. exporters may be challenged under these two antimonopoly legislative acts. Under Title III of the Export Trading Company Act ( see Chapter 4 ) the Department of Commerce, with the concurrency of the U.S. Department of Justice, can publish an export trade certification of reappraisal that provides certain limited unsusceptibility from the federal and province antimonopoly Torahs.
Although the great bulk of international concern minutess do non present antimonopoly jobs, antimonopoly issues may be raised in assorted types of minutess, among which are:
o abroad distribution agreements ;
o abroad joint ventures for research, fabrication, building, and distribution ;
o patent, hallmark, right of first publication, and know-how licences ;
O amalgamations and acquisitions affecting foreign houses; and
o natural stuff procurance understandings and grants.
The possible U.S. and foreign antimonopoly jobs posed by such minutess are discussed in greater item in Chapter 16. Where possible U.S. or foreign antimonopoly issues are raised, it is advisable to obtain the advice and aid of qualified antimonopoly advocate.
For peculiar minutess that pose hard antimonopoly issues, and for which an export trade certification of reappraisal is non desired, the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice can be asked to province its enforcement positions in a concern reappraisal missive. The concern reappraisal process is initiated by composing a missive to the Antitrust Division depicting the peculiar concern dealing that is contemplated and bespeaking the section’s positions on the antimonopoly legality of the dealing.
Certain facets of the federal antimonopoly enforcement policies sing international minutess are explored in the Department of Justice’s Antitrust Enforcement Guidelines for International Operations ( 1995 ) .
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act
It is improper for a U.S. house ( every bit good as any officer, managers employee, agent, or agent of a house or any shareholder moving on behalf of the house ) to offer, pay, or assure to pay ( or to authorise any such payment or promise ) money or anything of value to any foreign functionary ( or foreign political party or campaigner for foreign political office ) for the intent of obtaining or retaining concern. It is besides improper to do a payment to any individual while cognizing that all or a part of the payment will be offered, given, or promised, straight or indirectly, to any foreign functionary ( or foreign political party or campaigner for foreign political office ) for the intents of helping the house in obtaining or retaining concern. “Knowing” includes the constructs of “witting neglect” and “wilful blindness. ” ;
There is an exclusion to the antibribery commissariats for “easing payments for everyday governmental action.” The legislative act lists a figure of illustrations. Actions similar to those listed are besides covered by this exclusion.
A individual charged with a misdemeanor of the antibribery commissariats of the Federal Corrupt Practices Act ( FCPA ) may asseverate as a defence that the payment was lawful under the written Torahs and ordinances of the foreign state or that the payment was associated with showing a merchandise or executing a contractual duty.
Firms are capable to a mulct of up to $ 2 million; officers, managers, employees, agents, and shareholders are capable to a mulct of up to $ 100,000 and imprisonment for up to five old ages. The Attorney General can convey a civil action against a domestic concern ( and the Securities and Exchange Commission [ SEC ] against an issuer ) for a mulct of up to $ 10,000 every bit good as against any officer, manager, employee, or agent of an issuer, or shareholder moving on behalf of the house, who wilfully violates the antibribery commissariats. Under federal condemnable Torahs other than the FCPA, persons may be fined up to $ 250,000 or up to twice the sum of the gross addition or gross loss if the suspect derives monetary addition from the discourtesy or causes a monetary loss to another individual.
The Attorney General may besides convey a civil action to enjoin any act or pattern of a domestic concern ( and the SEC with regard to an issuer ) whenever it appears that the domestic concern or issuer ( or an officer, manager, employee, agent, or shareholder moving on behalf of the domestic concern or issuer ) is in misdemeanor ( or about to be ) of the antibribery commissariats.
A individual or house found in misdemeanor of the FCPA may be barred from making concern with the federal authorities. Indictment entirely can take to suspension of the right to make concern with the U.S. Government.
The Department of Justice has established an Foreign Corrupt Practices Act Opinion Procedure, the inside informations of which are found at 28 CFR Part 77. Under the Opinion Procedure, any party may bespeak a statement of the Justice Department’s present enforcement purposes under the antibribery commissariats of the FCPA sing any proposed concern behavior. Behavior for which the Department of Justice has issued an sentiment saying that the behavior conforms with current enforcement policy will be entitled to a given of conformance with the FCPA.
For farther information from the Department of Justice about the FCPA and the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act Opinion Procedure, reach the Deputy Chief, Fraud Section, Criminal Division, U.S. Department of Justice, Room 2424, Bond Building, 1400 New York Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C.20530, 202-514-0651 ( FTS ) 202-368-0651.
The Department of Commerce supplies general information to U.S. exporters who have inquiries about the FCPA and about international developments refering the FCPA and international graft. For farther information from the Department of Commerce about the FCPA, reach the Chief Counsel for International Commerce or the Senior Counsel for International Finance and Trade, Office of the Chief Counsel for International Commerce, U.S. Department of Commerce, Room 5882, 14th Street and Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C. 20230, 202-482-0937.
Food and Drug Administration
and Environmental Protection Agency Restrictions
In add-on to the assorted export ordinances that have been discussed, regulations and ordinances enforced by the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) and the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) besides affect a limited figure of exporters.
Food and Drug Administration
FDA enforces U.S. Torahs intended to guarantee the consumer that nutrients are pure and wholesome, that drugs and devices are safe and effectual, and that cosmetics are safe. FDA has promulgated a broad scope of ordinances to implement these ends. Exporters of merchandises covered by FDA’s ordinances are affected as follows:
If the point is intended for export merely, meets the specifications of the foreign buyer, is non in struggle with the Torahs of the state to which it is to be shipped, and is decently labeled, it is exempt from the debasement and misbranding commissariats of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act ( see 801 ( vitamin E ) ) . This freedom does non use to “new drugs” that have non been approved as safe and effectual, or to certain devices and biologics. Extra demands apply to these merchandises. Banned new carnal drugs may non be exported.
If the exporter thinks the export merchandise may be covered by FDA, it is of import to reach the nearest FDA field office or the Food and Drug Administration. Companies can do enquiries by composing to the FDA at 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857, naming 1-800-532-4440, or sing the FDA Web site at: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.fda.gov.
Environmental Protection Agency
EPA regulates the export of risky waste, pesticides, toxic chemicals, and ozone deplete substances. Although EPA by and large does non forbid the export of these substances ( there are some exclusions ) . There are assorted statutory presentment systems design to inform having foreign authoritiess that stuffs of possible human wellness or environmental concern will be come ining their states, and in some instances, allows for the foreign authoritiess to object to such cargos.
Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act ( RCRA ) , there are two different sets of export ordinances – one for exports of risky wastes traveling for recycling within the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development ( OECD ) ( 40 CFR 262 subpart H ) , and the other for non-OECD risky waste exports, every bit good as for risky wastes exported for intervention and disposal, both within and outside the OECD ( 40 CFR 262 subpart E ) . In both instances, exports are prohibited absent the consent of the importing authorities. Exporters are required to advise EPA’s Office of Compliance ( EPA/OC ) in composing. EPA/OC so forwards the presentment to the importing authorities ( and to pass through states, if applicable ) . In some instances, the written consent of the importing authorities is required before the cargo may get down; in other instances, consent is considered “tacit” if there is no response from the importing authorities after 30 yearss. Exporters should be cognizant of the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal This pact bans trade in risky wastes between parties and nonparties unless there is a Basel-consistent bilateral understanding in topographic point. Approximately 110 states have ratified the Basel Convention; nevertheless, the U.S. has non. Therefore, exporters should be cognizant of possible trade limitations. Exporters of risky waste should reach either EPA’s Office of Compliance, Import/Export Program at 202-564-2290 or the RCRA/Superfund Hotline at 800-424-9346 or 703-412-9810.
As for pesticides and other toxic chemicals, neither the federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act ( FIFRA ) nor the Toxic Substances Control Act ( TSCA ) requires exporters of banned or badly restricted chemicals to obtain written consent before transportation. However, exporters of unregistered pesticides or other chemicals capable to regulative control actions must follow with certain presentment demands. Under TSCA importing states are notified of the export or the intended export of many industrial chemicals or mixtures ( 40 CFR 707 subpart D ) . These chemicals or mixtures are capable to certain regulator actions taken under the act. Exporters send to EPA, for each affected chemical or mixture, a notice for each state to which the chemical or mixture is exported. The notice is sent yearly or merely one time, depending on the regulative action commanding the chemical or mixture. The bureau so informs the importing state of the regulative action taken. These notices are besides used to fulfill the information exchange commissariats of the Prior Informed Consent ( PIC ) processs, which are under the United Nations Environment Programme. For chemicals banned or badly restricted in the U.S. and capable to the PIC processs, EPA forwards to the designated national authorization of the importing state information on the chemical’s regulative controls. In add-on, TSCA besides prohibits the export of polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) and PCB-containing points in concentrations greater than or equal to 50 ppm, unless an freedom was granted. The TSCA hotline, 202-554-1404, can supply general information on these export demands.
A individual may non export category I ozone-depleting substances, including chlorofluorcarbons ( CFCs ) , to any state that is non a signer to the international pact entitled the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer ( Montreal Protocol ) . The United States is a signer to the Montreal Protocol.Under authorization of the Clean Air Act Amendations of 1990, the EPA published ordinances forbiding the export of bulk cargos of Chlorofluorocarbons, halons, methyl trichloromethane, C tetrachloride, and hydrobromoflurocarbons ( HBFCs ) to any state non a party to the protocol ( 40 CFR Part 82 subpart A ) . Presently, there are 162 states that are signers to the Montreal Protocol. The U.S. Customs Service and EPA co-ordinate to supervise and implement import and export limitations on ozone-depleting substances. To obtain an up-to-date list of signers to Montreal Protocol to export category I ozone-depleting substances contact EPA’s Stratospheric Protection Division at 202-233-9410.
Import Regulations of Foreign Governments
Import certification demands and other ordinances imposed by foreign authoritiess vary from state to state. It is critical that exporters be cognizant of the ordinances that apply to their ain operations and minutess. Many authoritiess, for case, require consular bills, certifications of review, wellness enfranchisement, and assorted other paperss. For beginnings of information about foreign authorities import ordinances, see Chapter 2.
Customss Benefits for Exporters
Drawback of Customs Duties
Historically, the word “drawback” has denoted a state of affairs in which the responsibility or revenue enhancement, legitimately collected, is refunded or remitted, entirely, or partly, because of a peculiar usage made of the trade good on which the responsibility or revenue enhancement was collected.
Drawback was ab initio authorized by the first duty act of the United States in 1789. Since so, it has been portion of the jurisprudence, although from clip to clip the conditions under which it is collectible have changed.
The principle for drawback has ever been to promote American commercialism or makers to vie in foreign markets without the disability of including costs, and accordingly in his gross revenues monetary value, the responsibility paid on imported ware.
Types of Drawback
Several types of drawback are authorized under subdivision 1313, Title 19, United States Code:
11. If articles are exported or destroyed, which were manufactured in the United States with the usage of imported ware, so the responsibilities paid on the imported ware used may be refunded as drawback, ( less 1 per centum which is retained by the U.S. Customs Service ( Customs ) to defray costs ( subdivision 1313 ( a ) drawback ) .
12. If both imported ware and any other ware of the same sort and quality are used to fabricate articles, some of which are exported or destroyed before usage, so drawback non transcending 99 per centum of the responsibility which was paid on the imported ware is collectible on the exports. It is immaterial whether the existent imported ware or the domestic ware of the same sort and quality was used in the exported articles. This proviso in the codification makes it possible for houses to obtain drawback without the disbursal of keeping separate stock lists for imported and domestic ware ( subdivision 1313 ( B ) drawback – the permutation proviso ) .
13. If ware is exported or destroyed because it does non conform with sample or specifications, or was shipped without the consent of the consignee, so 99 per centum of the responsibilities which were paid on the ware may be recovered as drawback.
14. When certain merchandises manufactured with the usage of domestic intoxicant are exported or shipped to assorted island ownerships, a drawback of the internal gross revenue enhancements paid on the domestic intoxicant may be refunded ( subdivision 1313 ( vitamin E ) drawback ) .
15. If imported salt is used to bring around fish, the responsibilities on the salt may be remitted ( subdivision 1313 ( vitamin E ) drawback ) .
16. If imported salt is used to bring around meat which is exported, a drawback, in sums non less than $ 100, of responsibilities paid on the salt may be obtained ( subdivision 1313 ( degree Fahrenheit ) drawback ) .
17.
If imported stuffs are used to build and fit vass and aircraft built for foreign history and ownership, 99 per centum of the responsibilities paid on the stuffs may be recovered as drawback, even though the vass and aircraft are non, in the rigorous significance of the word, exported ( subdivision 1313 ( g ) drawback ) .
18. If imported ware is used in the United States to mend jet aircraft engines originally manufactured abroad, the responsibilities paid on the imported ware may be recovered as drawback, in the sums non less than $ 100, when the engines are exported ( subdivision 1313 ( H ) drawback ) .
19. If imported ware is exported without being used, or destroyed under Customs supervising, 99 per centum of the responsibilities paid on the ware may be recovered as drawback ( subdivision 1313 ( J ) drawback ) .
If ware that is commercially interchangeable with imported ware is exported or destroyed under Customs supervising and at the clip of exportation or devastation has non been used, 99 per centum of the responsibilities on the ware may be recovered as drawback ( subdivision 1313 ( J ) drawback ) .
Boxing stuff used to box ware exported or destroyed under subdivision 1313 ( a ) , ( B ) , ( degree Celsius ) , or ( J ) , may have 99 per centum of the responsibilities paid on the packaging stuffs as drawback ( subdivision 1313 ( Q ) drawback ) .
How to Obtain Drawback
As most makers are interested in subdivisions 1313 ( a ) and ( B ) , merely the processs for obtaining drawback under these commissariats are discussed.
The intent of drawback is to enable a maker to vie in foreign markets. To make so, nevertheless, the maker must cognize, anterior to doing contractual committednesss, that he will be entitled to drawback on his exports. The drawback process has been designed to give the maker this confidence and protection.
Drawback Proposal
To obtain drawback, foremost fix a drawback proposal ( statement ) and register it with a Regional Commissioner of Customs for subdivision 1313 ( a ) drawback and with the Entry Rulings Branch, Customs central office, for other types of drawback, including combination 1313 ( a ) and ( B ) drawback.
There are presently several general drawback contracts available ( orangish juice, steel, sugar, constituent parts, and greige goods ) which eliminate the demand for entry of a proposal. These have been published in the Customs Bulletin and Decisions with instructions as to the process for adhering to them.
A simple drawback proposal to function as a theoretical account may be obtained from regional commissioners for subdivision 1313 ( a ) drawback. For other types of drawback, including combination 1313 ( a ) and ( B ) , write to: U.S. Customs Service, Entry Rulings Branch, 1301 Constitution Ave. , NW, Franklin Court, Washington, D.C. , 20229, or name 202-482-7040. The U.S. Customs Service besides maintains an Internet site at hypertext transfer protocol: //www.customs. ustreas.gov.
Blessing
The blessing of subdivision 1313 ( a ) proposal takes the signifier of a missive from a Regional Commissioner of Customs to the applier. The blessing of a subdivision 1313 ( B ) drawback proposal takes the signifier of a missive from U.S. Customs Service central offices to the Regional Commissioner of Customs where the applier will register claims. The applicant receives a transcript of this missive. Outlines of all contracts are published in the Customs Bulletin and Decisions The proposal and blessing together are called a drawback contract or drawback rate.
If the maker desires to hold his contract ( rate ) changed in any manner, he should register a new proposal ( statement ) and the process is the same as above.
Completion of Drawback Claims
Claims must be filed within three old ages after the exportation of the articles. To forestall tolling by the legislative act of restrictions, a claim may be filed before a drawback contract ( rate ) is effectual, although no payments will be made until the contract is approved. For completion of same status
Export Procedure
It is necessary for a drawback claimant to set up that the articles on which drawback is being claimed were exported within five old ages after importing of the imported ware which is the footing for the drawback. In the instance of same status drawback, the clip period for exportation is three old ages after importing. There are three methods which can be used to make so, and these are described in subdivisions 191.51 through 191.56 of the Customs Regulations. Before exporting, a hereafter claimant should do certain that he is taking the necessary stairss to follow with one of these processs.
Export of qualified U.S.-made crude oil merchandises may be shown by fiting production at a specific refinery with exports of qualified crude oil of the same sort and quality that occur within 180 yearss after the refinery produced the designated crude oil merchandise.
Export of qualified imported crude oil merchandises may be shown by fiting the sum imported with exports of qualified crude oil merchandises of the same sort and quality that occur within 180 yearss after the import ( subdivision 1313 ( P ) drawback ) .
Payment of Claims
When a claim has been completed by the filing of all needed paperss, the entry will be liquidated by the Regional Commissioner of Customs to find the sum of drawback due. Drawback is collectible to the exporter unless the maker militias to himself the right to claim the drawback.
Accelerated Payment
Accelerated payment of drawback under certain conditions is authorized by subdivision 192.72 of the Customs Regulations. Accelerated payment by and large will guarantee that a claimant will have his drawback no subsequently than two months after he files a claim. Accelerated drawback presently applies to same status drawback.
Consequence of the North American Free Trade Agreement
The North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) commissariats on drawback will use to goods imported into the United States and later exported to Canada on or after January 1, 1996. The NAFTA commissariats on drawback will use to goods imported into the United States and later exported to Mexico on or after January 1, 2001.
Drawback
Under the NAFTA, the sum of Customs responsibilities that will be refunded, reduced, or waived is the lesser of the entire sum of Customs responsibilities paid or owed on the finished good in the NAFTA state to which it is exported, for intents of subdivisions 1313 ( a ) , ( B ) , ( degree Fahrenheit ) , ( H ) , and ( g ) .
No NAFTA state, on status of export, will return, cut down, or waive the followers: antidumping or offseting responsibilities, premiums offered or collected pursuant to any tendering system with regard to the disposal of quantitative import limitations, duty rate quotas or trade penchant degrees, or a fee pursuant to subdivision 22 of the U.S. Agricultural Adjustment Act. Furthermore, same status permutation drawback was eliminated as of January 1, 1994.
U.S. Foreign-Trade Zones
Exporters should besides see the imposts privileges of U.S. foreign-trade zones. These zones are domestic U.S. sites that are considered outside U.S. imposts district and are available for activities that might otherwise be carried on overseas for imposts grounds. For export operations, the zones provide accelerated export position for intents of excise revenue enhancement discounts and imposts drawback. For import and reexport activities, no imposts responsibilities, federal excise revenue enhancements, or province or local ad valorem revenue enhancements are charged on foreign goods moved into zones unless and until the goods, or merchandises made from them, are moved into imposts district. This means that the usage of zones can be profitable for operations affecting foreign dutiable stuffs and constituents being assembled or produced here for reexport. Besides, no quota limitations normally use to export activity.
There are now 217 approved foreign-trade zones in port communities throughout the United States. Associated with these undertakings are some 356 subzones. These installations are available for operations affecting storage, repacking, review, exhibition, assembly, fabrication, and other processing.
More than 2,800 concern houses used foreign-trade zones in financial twelvemonth 1995. The value of ware moved to and from the zones during that twelvemonth exceeded $ 143 billion. Export cargos from zones and subzones amounted to about $ 17 billion.
Information about the zones is available from the zone director, from local Commerce Export Assistance Centers, or from the Executive Secretary, Foreign-Trade Zones Board, International Trade Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 20230.
Foreign Free Port and Free Trade Zones
To promote and ease international trade, more than 300 free ports, free trade zones, and similar customs-privileged installations are now in operation in some 75 foreign states, normally in or near havens or airdromes. Many U.S. makers and their distributers use free ports or free trade zones for having cargos of goods that are reshipped in smaller tonss to clients throughout the environing countries. For farther information, reach your local Department of Commerce Export Assistance Center or the Trade Information Center ( 1-800-872-8723 ) .
U.S. Customs Bonded Warehouse
A Customs bonded warehouse is a edifice or other secured country in which dutiable goods may be stored, manipulated, or undergo fabrication operations without payment of responsibility. Authority for set uping bonded storage warehouses is set Forth in Title 19. United States Code ( U.S.C. ) subdivision 1555. Bonded fabrication and smelting and refinement warehouses are established under Title 19, U.S.C. , subdivisions 1311 and 1312.
Upon entry of good into the warehouse, the importer and warehouse owner incur liability under a bond. The liability is canceled when the goods are:
o Exported ;
o Withdrawn for supplies to a vas or aircraft in international traffic ;
o Destroyed under Customs supervising; or
o Withdrawn for ingestion within the United States after payment of responsibility.
Types of Customs Bonded Warehouses
Nine different types or categories of Customs bonded warehouses are authorized under subdivision 19.1, Customs Regulations ( 19 CFR 19.1 ) :
24. Premisess owned or leased by the authorities and used for the storage of ware that is undergoing Customs scrutiny, is under ictus, or is pending concluding release from Customs detention. Unclaimed ware stored in such premises shall be held under “general order.” When such premises are non sufficient or available for the storage of seized or unclaimed goods, such goods may be stored in a warehouse of category 3,4, or 5 ;
25. Importers’private bonded warehouses used entirely for the storage of ware belonging or consigned to the owner thereof. A category 4 or 5 warehouse may be bonded entirely for the storage of goods imported by the owner thereof, in which instance it should be known as a private bonded warehouse ;
26. Public bonded warehouse used entirely for the storage of imported ware ;
27. Bonded paces or sheds for the storage of heavy and bulky imported ware; stallss, feeding pens, or cow pens, or other similar edifices or limited enclosures for the storage of imported animate beings; and armored combat vehicles for storage of imported liquid ware in majority ;
28. Bonded bins or parts of edifices or lifts to be used for the storage of grain ;
29. Warehouses for the industry in bond, entirely for exportation, of articles made in whole or in portion of imported stuffs or of stuffs capable to internal gross revenue enhancement; and for the industry for place ingestion or exportation of cigars made in whole of baccy imported from one state ;
30. Warehouses bonded for smelting and polishing imported metal-bearing stuffs for exportation or domestic ingestion ;
31. Bonded warehouses established for the cleansing, screening, repacking, or otherwise altering the status of, but non the fabrication of, imported ware, under Customs supervising, and at the disbursal of the owner ;
32. Bonded warehouses, known as duty-free shops, used for selling conditionally duty-free ware for usage outside the Customs district. Merchandise in this category must be owned or sold by the owner and delivered from the warehouse to an airdrome or other issue point for exportation by, or on behalf of, persons going from the Customs district for foreign finishs.
Advantages of Using a Bonded Warehouse
There are several advantages of utilizing a bonded warehouse. No responsibility is collected until ware is withdrawn for ingestion. An importer, hence, has control over usage of money until the responsibility is paid upon backdown of ware from the bonded warehouse. If no domestic purchaser is found for the imported articles, the importer can sell ware for exportation, thereby call offing his duty to pay responsibility.
Many points capable to quota or other limitations may be stored in a bonded warehouse. Check with the nearest Customs office before presuming that such ware may be placed in a bonded warehouse.
Duties owed on articles that have been manipulated are determined at the clip of backdown from the Customss bonded warehouse.
Merchandise: Entry, Storage, Treatment
All ware topic to responsibility may be entered for warehousing except spoilables and explosive substances other than bangers.
Full answerability for all ware entered into a Customs bonded warehouse must be maintained; that ware will be inventoried and the owner’s records will be audited on a regular footing. Bonded ware may non be commingled with domestic ware and must be kept separate from unbonded ware.
Merchandise in a Customs bonded warehouse may, with certain exclusions, be transferred from one bonded warehouse to another in conformity with the commissariats of Customs Regulations. Basically, ware placed in a Customs bonded warehouse, other than category 6 or 7, may be stored, cleaned, sorted, repacked, or otherwise changed in status, but non manufactured ( Title 19, U.S.C. , subdivision 1562 ) .
Articles manufactured in a category 6 warehouse must be exported in conformity with Customs Regulations. Waste or by-product from a category 6 warehouse may be withdrawn for ingestion upon payment of applicable responsibilities. Imported ware may be stored in a Customs bonded warehouse for a period of five old ages ( Title 19, U.S.C. , subdivision 1557 ( a ) ) .
How to Establish a Customs Bonded Warehouses
Application
An proprietor or leaseholder seeking to set up a bonded warehouse must do written application to his or her local Customs port manager depicting the premises, giving the location, and saying the category of warehouse to be established.
Except in the instance of a category 2 or 7 warehouse, the application must province whether the warehouse is to be operated merely for the storage or intervention of ware belonging to the applier, or whether it is to be operated as a populace bonded warehouse.
If the warehouse is to be operated as a private bonded warehouse, the application must besides province the general character of the ware to be stored in this, with an estimation of the maximal responsibilities and revenue enhancements that will be due on the ware at any one clip.
Other Requirements
The application must be accompanied by the followers:
A certification signed by the president or a secretary of a board of fire investment bankers that the edifice is a suited warehouse and acceptable for fire insurance intents. At ports where there is no board of fire investment bankers, certifications should be obtained and signed by officers of agents of two or more insurance companies.
A design demoing measurings to be bonded.
If the warehouse to be bonded is a armored combat vehicle, the design shall demo all mercantile establishments, recesss, and grapevines and shall be certified as correct by the owner of the armored combat vehicle. A gage tabular array demoing the capacity of the armored combat vehicle in U.S. gallons per inch or fraction of an inch of tallness, shall be included and certified by the owner as correct.
When a portion or parts of the edifice are to be used as a warehouse, a elaborate description of the stuffs and building of all dividers shall be included.
Chemical bonds Required
Chemical bonds for each category of warehouse shall be executed on Customss Form 301.
Duty-free stores ( category 9 ) have specific demands regulating their constitution. These demands include location, issue ports, record-keeping systems, and the blessing of local authoritiess.
Where are Customs Offices Located?
The U.S. Customs Service has more than 300 ports of entry in the United States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Please confer with your local telephone directory under “U.S. Treasury Department, Customs Service. ” ;
Foreign Gross saless Corporations
One of the most of import stairss a U.S. exporter can take to cut down federal income revenue enhancement on export-related income is to put up a foreign gross revenues corporation ( FSC ) . This revenue enhancement inducement for U.S. exporters replaced the domestic international gross revenues corporation ( DISC ) , except the involvement charge DISC. While the involvement charge DISC allows exporters to postpone paying revenue enhancements on export gross revenues, the revenue enhancement inducement provided by the FSC statute law is in the signifier of a lasting freedom from federal income revenue enhancement for a part of the export income attributable to the offshore activities of FSCs ( 26 U.S.C. , subdivisions 921-927 ) . The revenue enhancement freedom can be every bit great as 15 to 30 per centum on gross income from exporting, and the disbursals can be kept low through the usage of mediators who are familiar with and able to transport out the formal demands. A house that is exporting or thought of exporting can optimise available revenue enhancement benefits with proper planning, rating, and aid from an comptroller or attorney.
An FSC is a corporation set up in certain foreign states or in U.S. ownerships ( other than Puerto Rico ) to obtain a corporate revenue enhancement freedom on a part of its net incomes generated by the sale or rental of export belongings and the public presentation of some services. A corporation ab initio qualifies as an FSC by run intoing certain basic formation trials. An FSC ( unless it is a little FSC ) must besides run into several foreign direction trials throughout the twelvemonth. If it complies with those demands, the FSC is entitled to an freedom on qualified export minutess in which it performs the needed foreign economic procedures.
FSCs can be formed by makers, nonmanufacturers, or groups of exporters, such as export trading companies. An FSC can work as a principal, purchasing and selling for its ain history, or as a committee agent. It can be related to a fabrication parent or it can be an independent merchandiser or agent.
An FSC must be incorporated and have its chief office ( a shared office is acceptable ) in the U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, or a qualified foreign state. In general, a house must register for incorporation by following the normal processs of the host state or U.S. ownership. Some states, offer revenue enhancement inducements to pull FSCs. To measure up, a company must place itself as an FSC to the host authorities. Consult the authorities revenue enhancement governments in the state or U.S. ownership of involvement for specific information.
A state qualifies as an FSC host if it has an exchange of information understanding with the United States approved by the U.S. Department of the Treasury. As of September 17, 1996, the qualified states were Australia, Austria, Barbados, Belgium, Bermuda, Canada, Costa Rica, Cyprus, Denmark, Dominica, the Dominican Republic, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Grenada, Guyana, Honduras, Iceland, Ireland, Jamaica, Korea, the Marshall Islands, Malta, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Peru, the Philippines, St. Lucia, Sweden, and Trinidad and Tobago. Since the Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) does non let foreign revenue enhancement credits for foreign revenue enhancements imposed on the FSC’s qualified income, it is by and large advantageous to turn up an FSC merely in a state where local income revenue enhancements and withholding revenue enhancements are minimized. Most FSCs are incorporated in the U.S. Virgin Islands or Guam.
The FSC ( unless it is a little FSC ) must hold at least one manager who is non a U.S. occupant, must maintain one set of its books of history ( including transcripts or sum-ups of bills ) at its chief offshore office, can non hold more than 25 stockholders, can non hold any preferable stock, and must register an election to go an FSC with the IRS. Besides, a group may non have both an FSC and an involvement charge DISC.
The part of the FSC gross income from exporting that is exempt from U.S. corporate revenue enhancement is 30 per centum for a corporate-held FSC if it buys from independent providers or contracts with related providers at an “arm’s-length” monetary value – a monetary value equivalent to that which would hold been paid by an unrelated buyer to an unrelated marketer. An FSC supplied by a related entity may besides measure up to utilize the particular administrative pricing regulations to calculate its revenue enhancement freedom. Although an FSC does non hold to utilize the two particular administrative pricing regulations, these regulations may supply extra revenue enhancement nest eggs for certain FSCs.
Small FSCs and involvement charge DISCs are designed to give export inducements to smaller concerns. The revenue enhancement benefits of a little FSC or an involvement charge DISC are limited by ceilings on the sum of gross income that is elegible for the benefits.
The little FSC is by and large the same as an FSC, except that a little FSC must register an election with the IRS denominating itself as a little FSC – which means it does non hold to run into foreign direction or foreign economic procedure demands. A little FSC revenue enhancement freedom is limited to the income generated by $ 5 million or less in gross export grosss.
An exporter can still put up a DISC in the signifier of an involvement charge DISC to postpone the infliction of revenue enhancements for up to $ 10 million in export gross revenues. A corporate stockholder of an involvement charge DISC may postpone the infliction of revenue enhancements on about 94 per centum of its income up to the $ 10 million ceiling if the income is reinvested by the DISC in qualified export assets. An person who is the exclusive stockholder of an involvement charge DISC can postpone 100 per centum of the DISC income up to the $ 10 million ceiling. An involvement charge DISC must run into the undermentioned demands: the taxpayer must do a new election; the revenue enhancement twelvemonth of the new DISC must fit the revenue enhancement twelvemonth of its bulk shareholder; and the DISC stockholders must pay involvement yearly at U.S. Treasury measure rates on their proportionate portion of the accrued revenue enhancements deferred.
A shared FSC is an FSC that is shared by 25 or fewer unrelated exporter-shareholders to cut down the costs while obtaining the full revenue enhancement benefit of an FSC. Each exporter-shareholder owns a separate category of stock and each runs its ain concern as usual. Typically, exporters pay a committee on export gross revenues to the FSC, which distributes the committee back to the exporter.
States, regional governments, trade associations, or private concerns can patronize a shared FSC for their province’s companies, their association’s members, or their concern clients or clients, or for U.S. companies in general. A shared FSC is a agency of sharing the cost of the FSC. However, the benefits and proprietary information are non shared. The patron and the other exporter-shareholders do non take part in the exporter’s net incomes, do non take part in the exporter’s revenue enhancement benefits, and are non a hazard for another exporter’s debts.
For more information about FSCs, U.S. companies may reach the the Office of the Associate Chief Counsel for International Commerce, U.S. Internal Revenue Service 202-622-3810; the Office of the Chief Counsel for International Commerce, U.S. Department of Commerce 202-482-0937; or a local office of the IRS.
Intellectual Property Considerations
Intellectual belongings refers to a wide aggregation of rights associating to such affairs as plants of writing, which are protected under right of first publication jurisprudence; innovations, which are protected under patent jurisprudence; Markss, which are protected by hallmark jurisprudence; every bit good as designs and trade secrets. No international pact wholly defines these types of rational belongings, and the Torahs of the assorted states differ from each other in important respects. National rational belongings Torahs create, confirm, or modulate a belongings right without which others could utilize or copy a trade secret, an look, a design, or a merchandise or its grade and packaging.
The rights granted by a U.S. patent, hallmark enrollment, right of first publication, or mask work ( semiconductor bit ) enrollment extend merely through the United States and its districts and ownerships. They confer no protection in a foreign state. There is no such thing as an international patent, hallmark, or right of first publication. To procure rights in any state, you must use for a patent or register a mask work or hallmark in that state. Copyright protection depends on national Torahs, but enrollment is typically non required. There is no existent “short cut” to worldwide protection of rational belongings. However, some advantages and minimal criterions for the protection and enforcement of rational belongings exist under pacts or other international understandings.
International Agreements: The oldest pact associating to patents, hallmarks, and unjust competition is the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property. The United States and over 130 other states are parties of this pact. The Paris Convention sets minimal criterions of protection and provides two of import benefits: the right of national intervention and the right of precedence.
Overgeneralizing, “national intervention” means that a Paris Convention state will non know apart against aliens in allowing patent or hallmark protection. Rights may be greater or less than those provided under U.S. jurisprudence but the rights given will be the same as that state provides to its ain citizens.
An innovation may go public and hence unpatentable in many states, when a patent is issued or an application is laid unfastened to inspection in any state. In add-on, a hold in registering a patent or hallmark application leaves open the possibility that those rights will be lost because of step ining Acts of the Apostless such as sale of the innovation or enrollment of the hallmark by another. The Paris Convention’s “right of precedence” provides a solution to this job by giving an discoverer an option to registering applications in many states at the same time. It allows the applier one twelvemonth from the day of the month of the first application filed in a Paris Convention state ( six months for a design or hallmark ) in which to register in other states. Publication or sale of an innovation after first filing will therefore non jeopardize patentability in states which grant a right of precedence to U.S. appliers. Not all states adhere to the Paris Convention but these benefits may be available under another pact or bilateral understanding. These substantial duties have been incorporated into the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property ( TRIPs ) , by mention for attachment by WTO members.
The United States is besides a party to the Patent Cooperation Treaty ( PCT ) , which provides processs for registering patent applications in its member states. The PCT allows an applicant to register one “international application” denominating member states in which a patent is sought, with the same consequence as registering national applications in each of those states. The applier may so later proceed with the filing of separate “national” applications in those states.
The United States’international right of first publication ordinances are governed chiefly by the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (” Berne” ) , to which more than 120 other states adhere. The United States is besides a member of the Universal Copyright Convention ( UC
