Robert K. Merton, an American sociologist, released his initial significant work in 1938 titled “Social Structure and Anomie”. Following its publication, this piece underwent revisions and adjustments to address criticisms. The importance of this lies in the timing of Merton’s research, which occurred during a period when crime was predominantly viewed as an individual issue explained through psychology.
Merton, on the other hand, utilized sociology in relation to crime. This is crucial for comprehending his strain theory, as his work is sociological in essence and builds upon the foundational principles of structuralism. Merton also drew inspiration from the preceding contributions of functionalists like Emile Durkheim. Furthermore, he adopted Durkheim’s concept of anomie, previously associated with suicide resulting from the disintegration of social norms, and applied it specifically to crime.
According to the anomie perspective on crime, the social organization of American society leads to a breakdown of culture, resulting in high levels of crime and deviant behavior (Cullen and Wilcox, 2010). Merton’s strain theory suggests that the American Dream creates pressure for individuals to achieve ambitious goals, without considering legitimate means to do so.
Society, according to structural functionalism, has two main components: cultural structure, which includes prescribed goals and legal attainment, and social structure, which consists of patterned social relationships. These components exist at varying levels of integration. Merton refers to the state of society as malintegration, which refers to the inherent tensions between core features of the system. These tensions can be present between various elements of culture or between culture and the social structure.
According to Cullen and Wilcox (2010), when the cultural focus is on achieving goals, there is an imbalance where the goals receive strong emphasis and the institutionalized methods of achieving them are given weak emphasis. The means of achieving these goals prioritize efficiency. Merton argues that this represents society’s dominant cultural ethos and embodies the American Dream. While cultural goals are universal and apply to everyone, the social structure limits access to the approved means of achieving success.
According to Merton, the class-based inequality of opportunity undermines cultural integrity and leads to anomie. Merton’s strain theory explores various responses individuals might have to their social environment. The most common response is conformity, as it ensures societal norms and values are upheld and chaos is avoided. However, when individuals face strain due to their inability to achieve their goals through legitimate means, they often resort to innovation.
The concept of accepting the goals of society, but rejecting the means and resorting to criminal elements to achieve success, coexists with the notion of ritualism. Ritualism manifests in individuals who have turned their back on or lack interest in society’s goals, yet still adhere to its means, leading a monotonous life. Often observed in lower middle-class workers who perceive no genuine opportunities for social mobility, ritualism involves persisting in daily routines nonetheless. On the other hand, retreatism encompasses those who reject both the goals and means of society, withdrawing completely from societal engagement. Retreatism is commonly associated with substance abusers, vagabonds, or individuals suffering from mental instability.
Ultimately, Merton addresses those individuals who reject both the means and goals of society, replacing them with their own rebellious norms and values. Although he emphasizes innovation without providing much explanation for why someone might select one mode of adaptation over another, strain theory clusters and classifies predictable reactions to a goal-oriented society that exhibits weak norms and values, neglecting consideration of the means by which success is achieved.
The end justifies the means, as explained in Section B 4. i), where crime and deviance are differentiated. The evaluation of two theories that explain crime is also discussed, with reference to their application in a Caribbean country. Crime and deviance are closely interconnected and often studied together due to the legal consequences associated with crime, while deviance is measured by societal norms without legal implications. Society operates when individuals conform to accepted norms and values they deem essential for their society. According to the functionalist perspective, society comprises individuals who share similar belief systems and common values that unite them. Those who do not adhere to these explicit or implicit societal values and norms are labeled as deviant and marginalized as sub-cultures or minority groups. Therefore, deviance specifically refers to acts that a particular society does not accept.
It is society and institutions’ responsibility to categorize deviant behavior, which is considered inherently deviant when it involves breaking laws and receiving punishment. However, there are situations where a criminal act may not be seen as deviant because it conforms to the prevailing norms and values of that time. Nonetheless, in the past, governing laws classified it as a crime due to its deviant nature.
Functionalism provides a framework for understanding the importance of crime in society. It is one of the first attempts to explain how crime affects social dynamics. Crime plays a positive role by creating legal and justice systems, creating jobs, and preventing the violation of societal norms and values. Those who break laws are punished, which deters others from engaging in similar behavior and encourages conformity to societal norms. However, the main purpose of crime is to maintain social control. The ruling class uses crime and deviance as a means of governing the population and preserving the existing social structure.
The conflict theory of crime posits that the norms and values governing society, which dictate what is considered criminal or deviant, are enforced by the elite capitalists who manipulate laws to oppress the working class and further their own capitalist agenda. According to conflict theory, an act is not deemed criminal until it is determined to be so. Deviance serves as the initial stage in dismantling the structure of the capitalist state and is subsequently labeled as negative and deviant.
In society, people often try to avoid certain actions to prevent facing serious repercussions such as social isolation from society, friends, and family. To escape being stigmatized, individuals choose to reject behavior that is considered deviant. Offenses that specifically harm the capitalist system are identified so that the legal system can punish and control the working class. An action is deemed criminal solely based on its definition in the law. If the law was eliminated, that same action would no longer be considered a crime and might even gain acceptance in society. This phenomenon can be observed in today’s Western world.
Divorce used to be frowned upon in the 20th century, but society is now more tolerant of it in the 21st century due to divorce rates surpassing 40%. This demonstrates how societal norms and values are constantly changing. Conflict theorists argue that laws are intentionally designed to separate and isolate different groups within a population, which undermines unity and could hinder a Marxist revolution. By dividing the population, the ruling class ensures that the working class remains divided and engaged in internal conflicts, thus preventing them from recognizing their own oppression.
Critics contend that crime is not solely limited to the working class; even conflict theory recognizes this. However, it is crucial to recognize that crime committed by the elite typically takes the form of white-collar or victimless crimes, which frequently go unnoticed or unaddressed. Individuals with what Weber refers to as “status and prestige” often exploit their societal positions to avoid any negative consequences, consequently exacerbating the oppression faced by the working class, as the attention shifts completely onto them.
From a macro perspective, symbolic interactionists suggest labeling theory as an alternative viewpoint. This theory emphasizes the role of societal labels in influencing secondary criminal acts. According to labeling theory, every individual has the potential to deviate or engage in criminal behavior. However, repeat offenses occur because society as a whole or influential members of society attach labels or stigmas to individuals or groups. Only when individuals are labeled do they become susceptible to these labels and consequently get trapped in a cycle of recurring criminal behavior.
This theory is best comprehended when it is applied to a particular society, such as the Caribbean, specifically Trinidad and Tobago. People from a specific region who are considered to have a significant number of delinquents or lawbreakers acquire that classification. Any individual born or living in these regions carry the reputation of being a criminal or miscreant – the reputation of the area – and they are judged based on this reputation rather than their inherent value. Moreover, this reputation follows them when they seek employment or join social institutions, thereby restricting their legal alternatives for survival.
Some individuals in Trinidad and Tobago are forced to lead criminal lives because they have no other options. This is evident when police profile criminals during road blocks and house searches. Moreover, this theory explains why ex-convicts struggle with displacement and being labeled as convicts, which leads to a cycle of re-offending. Crime and deviance both arise from societal norms and values. Any behavior that does not conform to these norms is considered deviant and classified as a criminal act.
Conflict theorists assert that the actions of capitalists contribute to the oppression of the working class and the preservation of the capitalist state, while labeling theory posits that crime is not solely a result of capitalist actions but also stems from society’s response towards those who deviate from social norms. Society assigns labels to these individuals as deviant, pressuring them to either embrace or be compelled into accepting these labels, leading them towards criminal behavior.
