To what extent did the Carbonari order change in response to the political situation in Italy in the early 1800’s? Even though the Carbonari movement dates back to the middle ages, it became more prominent in Italy in the late 1700’s and early 1800’s. This period was complicated with wars and occupations. Italy was split into multiple kingdoms, with the dominant ones being ruled by Austria (Northern and Southern Italy), the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and France.The French revolutionary wars in 1792-97 ended the Habsburg rule, and the Holy Roman Empire was defeated by Napoleon.
In the early 1800’s, parts of Italy were exchanged several times between the French and the Austrians. It is then that the Carbonari movement began the shift from a professional society, which provided other benefits such as protection for travelers, with humanitarian ideals, Christian ideas, and superstition, to politically-charged ideals of overthrowing the existing political system and unifying Italy. This paper will argue that the complicated political situation in Italy necessitated this shift.
The beginnings of the Carbonari are shrouded in mystery. There are many different considerations on how, why, or by whom the organization came to be. According to one legend, the Carbonari originated from Philip of Macedonia, who was Alexander the Great’s father (Rath, 353). Other legends claim that they were established as a protection agency for the charcoal burners of Germany, or by Frenchman who fled during the reign of Charles VI (Rath, 353).
The tradition popularized among Carbonari members ties its roots to St. Theobald, who allegedly founded it in the eleventh century to provide care to travelers (Rath, 353-354). According to other myths, the order first originated in medieval France, but other myths point to Scotland or England (Rath, 354). Advocates for the British-origin theory believe that the order spread to Italy by means of Malta, or that English officers had introduced the Carbonari to Italy (Rath, 354-355).
Still others believe that the organization was an indigenous Italian organization, or that Queen Maria Carolina formed them in an attempt to undermine the French regime, which occupied Naples (Rath, 355). However, due to the resemblance in the means of writing, symbols, and the format of the institution, many historians believe that the Carbonari derive from the Freemasons (Rath 355).
All in all, the popular opinion is that the Carbonari were a popular offshoot of Freemasonry made for the anti-Napoleonic Masons of Italy (created to arouse the public against the French) (Rath, 356; Shiver, 235). The order would span across many social classes (Galt, 789). Contrary to the lack of clarity about the origins of the Carbonari, the views, purposes and goals of the order were more straightforward.
Although there is little information about the emergence of the order, there are many important primary sources in Milanese archives that describe and format the first two grades of Carbonari ranks (Rath, 356). There were many different Carbonari lodges (vendite, plural for vendita, lodge or shop (Galt, 789; Rath, 357)) across the Apennine Peninsula, and the primary source documents of the catechisms and rites of passage of the Carbonari show that the principle and official beliefs, ceremonies, and catechisms resemble each other closely and were followed by a large amount of Carbonari members and lodges (Rath, 356).
The Carbonari held righteousness, benevolence, honor, and respect for law in high esteem, because the order placed great emphasis on humanitarian ideals. In addition to that, religious (and more specifically, Christian) and superstitious beliefs were present, and this was used to gain favor with the peasantry of Southern Italy (Rath, 359).
Common Christian beliefs attracted potential apprentices from the peasantry, even though the order was comprised of members from many different classes. It is important to note, however, that these practices were not apparent of all vendite, but could be considered a characteristic of Carbonari practices because it was shown in the majority of lodges.
For example, in the initiation ceremony for the second grade of masters, it showed Jesus as a “victim of the most cruel tyranny” (Rath, 359). It was taught that just like Jesus came to earth to suffer and go to heaven, members of the Carbonari could also go to heaven. Another example of religious ideals is that the master Carbonari were taught that the first Good Cousins (another word for Carbonari) were the Twelve Apostles, and that Christ was the original Carbonaro (Rath, 362).
However, Jesus was referenced not in Christian terms, but in Carbonari terms, by which he was called the “Grand Master of the Universe” or “Good Cousin Grand Master of the Universe” (Rath 361). Although these views would be upheld by future Carbonari, an influx of political tensions would bring the Carbonari into a more active role against tyranny and would prioritize political ideals over Christian ones.
With time, the Carbonari political ideals were becoming more pronounced, and they became the reason for an increase in persecution against the order. During the trial of the Macerata conspirators in 1818, authorities managed to gain possession of a catechism and multiple other documents that showed how radical vendite had aims of destroying tyrannical governments (Rath, 362). In these lodges, the cross symbolized the means by which a Carbonaro would “crucify the tyrant.”
Other symbols were used to develop a symbolic means of communicating the crushing of a tyrant, like the hatchet, which “will cut his head from his body” (Rath, 362). The Austrian Police in Italy discovered another manuscript from the Romagna (Rath, 362). This was influential in the first judiciary action against the Carbonari by the Austrian government because it uncovered that the purpose of the Carbonari was to “cooperate in the destruction of tyrants and despots,” and that the order had strayed away from the respect for law and righteous deeds (Rath, 362).
From focusing their attention on destroying the tyranny and liberating the Italian people, the Carbonari directed their attention to providing Italy with a different form of government. It was becoming readily apparent that the Carbonari were set on giving unity and liberty to the Italian people, and that they were in opposition to every kind of monarchical government. Their aim became “to provide the united Italy with some form of constitutional government” (Rath, 362). Radical wings of Carbonari began exterminating local governments and replacing them with republican regimes (Rath, 367).
These extremist vendite followed a social constitution that was either the exact copy or a resemblance of the Ausonian Republic, which became infused into the initiation rites of a grand master (Rath, 367). These groups were imbued with sentiments similar to the Left-Wing Jacobins of France and teachings of Rousseau (Rath, 368). Grand Masters promised to focus their power on promoting “agrarian laws, without which there can be no liberty, since private property is an outrage against the rights of the human race” (Rath, 369).
The order’s political ideals spread, and it begins to take action. In July 1820, several revolutionary leaders with the support of local Carbonari vendite stormed into Naples and forced King Ferdinand to adopt a version of a Spanish constitution. Ferdinand appointed his son, Duke of Calabria, to sovereign power, and stepped down (Shiver, 328). This constitution implemented a weak parliamentary system (Galt, 786). This historical event marked the first revolutionary action taken by the Carbonari that had a result on a national scale.
This period would develop nationalism through the pride of the Carbonari for the victory they had in the Revolution of 1820. During this period an abundance of texts was produced, amid criticism from Napoleonic groups (Galt, 788). However, this constitutional system would only last for nine months; King Ferdinand had been brought back into the absolute monarchy by the Holy Alliance (Galt, 786). Secret societies across Italy were severely prosecuted as soon as Ferdinand took up power once again. This was the first known attempt for the Carbonari to come to power. It would be followed by others.
The political influence of the Carbonari had expanded. The Carbonari became an international movement and spread to Switzerland, Russia, France, Spain, and Germany. The scope of the organization, at the time, was largely unrecognized. For example, Carbonari ideas infected the Russian army. However, the spy network organized by the Russian government failed to notice this infiltration of Carbonari (Shiver, 240).
Some have argued that the Carbonari movement, despite its spread, was ineffective at overthrowing governments. However, given the humble origins of the order, itAs the paper has shown, the volatile political situation in Italy caused the Carbonari society to evolve from a peaceful, superstitious and religious order to formatting the ideals of a political uprising. The humble roots of the Carbonari had grown into a powerful order, capable of crossing borders and inciting political ideas leading to revolutions.
