In society, there are firm beliefs concerning norms, values, and mores that are maintained. Nevertheless, deviance exists within the preservation of this diverse range of beliefs. This article seeks to explain the presence of deviance in society by employing the strain theory. The author’s objective is to define values, deviance, and the strain theory while offering examples from different societies to illustrate how the theory explains the occurrence of deviance.
From a sociological standpoint, values encompass the beliefs held by a society regarding what is desirable, acceptable, and morally correct. These values are well-established within society, but their prominence can vary across different cultures. According to Agnew (2001: 343), the inability to attain certain fundamental objectives through conventional means, which can be effortlessly achieved through criminal activities, may contribute to delinquency. These objectives may consist of ambitions for financial gain, seeking excitement or thrill, asserting individual autonomy, and attaining masculine status.
When individuals are unable to achieve their goals because of ascribed status, such as race or religion, they may view this as unjust and feel compelled to use illegitimate means to reach their goals. This perspective comes from the belief that the legitimate ways of achieving these goals are blocked. These goals encompass various values in society like education, economic success, marriage, possessions, and ideas of femininity or masculinity. On the other hand, Merton (1968) defines deviance as behaviors that defy established group norms, including both cultural mores and moral standards of society.
The author stresses that for behavior to be classified as deviant, it must elicit a negative response from the group. It is crucial to recognize that the definition of deviant behavior is determined by the group or society. If a particular behavior does not provoke a negative reaction from the group, it is not considered deviant. Additionally, perceptions of deviance differ among societies and consider factors such as age, gender, sex, culture, and geographical location. For instance, smoking mbanje in Zimbabwe is viewed as deviant unless one is in Binga; nevertheless, it is accepted among the older generation in the communal areas of Binga.
In certain states of America, gay marriages are seen as deviant while in others they are accepted. Robert Merton built upon this understanding of deviance when discussing the matter further. He was motivated by the functionalist viewpoint that deviance is a necessary and beneficial function in society. Merton’s theory is rooted in comprehending the reasons behind deviant behavior during the Great Depression in America, which is why he strongly emphasizes economic success and frequently references the values of American society.
Anderson and Taylor (2009) propose that deviance can be understood through the strain theory, which posits that it arises when there is a mismatch between cultural goals and the available means to attain them. In simpler terms, society establishes specific values or objectives for its individuals to reach, but the social framework may lack the resources required for accomplishing these goals.
According to Merton, deviance occurs when there is a discrepancy between societal values and the means available to achieve those values. In a well-functioning society, people will strive to use the accepted means to attain societal values. However, when there is an imbalance between values and means, deviance arises. Merton suggests that whether deviance occurs or not depends on how efficiently individuals can achieve culturally approved goals. He argues that society’s pressure on individuals to succeed economically can either push them to conform within the existing social structure or lead them into a deviant subculture. Conley adds that despite the possibility of upward social mobility, strains in society hinder progress towards economic success.
The lack of equal access to resources for different classes ultimately leads to deviant behavior. For instance, lower-class individuals strive for economic success but face limited opportunities due to obstacles. Consequently, they are more likely to engage in deviant actions to attain economic success. Merton supports this idea in his theory, stating that society’s approved pathway to success is through education and employment. Thus, he highlights that when people are denied equal access to official means of success, they resort to illegal opportunity structures.
The author draws on Durkheim’s concept of “anomie,” which Conley (2008) defines as the breakdown of cultural norms due to rapid change. This occurs when institutions like schools, which are meant to regulate success in society, fail to control individuals’ behavior in their pursuit of economic success. This failure may be due to limitations or lack of availability. As a result, the values imposed by society may not align with the current economic reality or the accessibility of education for the general population.
Deviance, in this case, becomes a common reaction to the situation wherein society places great importance on success without providing clear guidelines on how to achieve it. Merton categorized people’s responses into various options when deviating from norms is possible, illustrating how societal emphasis on social values fuels deviance. Merton’s reactions to the institution’s failure in ensuring economic success are influenced by individual choices.
One example of this is conformists, who, despite the institutions’ failure to provide economic success, persist in pursuing the established societal goal of education and values. In the Zimbabwe scenario, for instance, despite the economic collapse in 2007-8, colleges were still producing graduates. These individuals continue to attend school/college despite the limited prospects of economic success and the absence of employment guarantors, as education is seen as a means to achieve economic success, as promoted by society.
In the same vein, the ritualists are individuals who adhere to the structured societal values of success; however, they are rigid in their beliefs and believe in achieving these goals through traditional means such as hard work. Despite their high level of commitment to their work, the ritualists are not focused on attaining wealth and instead prioritize their climb up the socio-economic ladder.
The ritualist is known for their dedication to work and their indifference towards bonuses. They behave like loyal servants, finding fulfillment in completing tasks and caring less about society’s emphasis on economic success. A notable example is seen in Zimbabwean teachers who persistently go to work, teach, and find satisfaction in the success of their students, showing little concern for monetary achievements.
The most fascinating among these categorizations are the innovators, who are central in the strain theory regarding deviance. The innovators recognize that their position in society depends on the importance society places on economic success and therefore adhere to society’s core values. However, they disregard conventional methods of achieving these goals, as Agwew (2001, 45) explains, “innovators are individuals who break rules and often laws in order to attain the success goals promoted by society.” A clear example can be seen in Zimbabwe with the emergence of the term “njikiriza,” which describes a social class that strives for success by disregarding the country’s laws. Examples include burning money and smuggling goods. The driving force behind these individuals is the recognition of societal pressures that reinforce the importance of economic success.
However, the limitation of this factor is that only a few individuals have the opportunity to succeed in a legitimate way. Instead of remaining passive, groups find alternative means that are against societal laws but still lead to economic success. An iconic example in America during the 1930s is the gang leader Al Capone and his various enterprises. Surprisingly, the population embraced this deviance instead of the lawmakers, which is a characteristic of innovators within society.
Other examples of innovators include common thieves, drug dealers, prostitutes, and foreign currency dealers known as “osiphatheleni”. The retreatists, on the other hand, reject both cultural goals and accepted means of achieving them. These individuals may be referred to as escapists because they retreat into their own worlds and lack the motivation to pursue any goals. Alcoholics and some homeless individuals exemplify this group who defy societal expectations but fail to strive for success.
They fail to fully replace the values and instead turn to less demanding cultural forces, finding a sense of comfort in deviant activities like drug and alcohol abuse. Those who rebel reject both the established cultural goals and accepted methods of achieving those goals, instead opting for new goals and new ways of achieving them. The most extreme examples of these rebels can be seen in groups like the Ku Klux Klan in America, who expressed their frustration at not achieving the desired societal values by engaging in violent acts and targeting minority black groups.
These individuals can display retaliatory and harmful behavior towards certain groups or authority figures. The recent xenophobic attacks in South Africa can be understood as a form of deviance originating from those who have rejected societal values and the goals associated with them. Conversely, there are certain groups who completely abandon society, such as Zimbabweans who choose to live abroad. It is through these examples and the explanation of typologies that deviance is produced according to the strain theory.
According to Hirschi (1969), individuals may feel strain and negative emotions, like anger, when they perceive adversity as being imposed by others. They may also experience resentment when they believe unfair treatment from others, and depression or anxiety when blaming themselves for stressful outcomes. From this perspective, whenever individuals encounter a stressful event and their personal goals are hindered in pursuit of societal goals, deviant behavior is likely to emerge as a reaction to the situation.
The production of deviance stems from the fact that people often use illegitimate means to achieve social values, which ultimately leads to deviant behavior. It is worth noting, however, that solely attributing deviance to the strain theory may be problematic. Kornhauser (1978) acknowledges that while the strain theory is a factor, the structural sources of deviant behavior persist as a precursor.
The text highlights that it does not provide an in-depth analysis of the structural factors that influence the various responses available to individuals residing in an unbalanced social structure. It acknowledges that it partially overlooks, but does not dismiss, the social psychological processes that determine the specific occurrence of these responses. Additionally, it briefly explores the social functions served by deviant behavior and briefly mentions rebellious behavior that aims to reshape the social framework. In essence, this suggests that there are other factors originating from society itself that contribute to deviance, regardless of the societal obstacles. Ultimately, it can be concluded that strain theory precedes the emergence of deviance in society. This is because societal mechanisms are unbalanced and do not favor the lower class, who are already burdened by various social issues. Consequently, feelings of frustration and failure to attain societal values result in deviant reactions.
