Roman Engineering
Introduction
The most amazing constructions created in history are often associated with the Romans. Unlike any other civilizations, Roman constructions notably crossed the boundaries of engineering with their magnificent structures out of bricks, wood, mortar, and manpower. Public and privately owned Roman buildings stand out for their strong features, thereby making the ancient Romans the premiere engineers and architects. Despite the association of Roman engineering to those of Greeks’, the Romans’ pursuit to contribute in creating materials and techniques greatly affect their space-making and architectural perspective for the purpose of stability and longevity. Hence, the Romans excelled in building structures with vast breadth and height that no other civilization had tried before.
Likewise, the said structures were hardly surpassed by any other engineering feats despite the continuous development in technology. Most of the engineering solutions formulated by the Romans are influenced by their rich social statuesque and high population density, and because of these, most of their field constructions are entailed for the use of the public. Nonetheless, as Romans are known for their grandeur, the buildings they have created are often developed for the purpose of entertainment and other public functions (Yegul, 2009).
Roman City Planning
Prior to the creation of concrete, the Romans were noted to carry out the influences of both Greeks and Etruscans. The founding of Rome’s provincial city was associated with the religious rituals of the Etruscans, wherein a chosen site was bound by a furrow made out of a bronze plough drawn by an ox along a line where an encircling wall will be built later on. Inside the walls, burials were then prohibited, and on the side of each walls, sanctified areas were created. The Greek influence was evident on the gridiron street plan that is enclosed by walls during the seventh and sixth BCE. The typical Roman city and empire had two main intersecting roads known as cardo or north south and decumanus or east-west. The said street patterns were attributed to the Greeks and Etruscans, while the colonies were mostly resembled to the Romans’ military camp which had a fortified rectangular area that had gates in the middle of each wall. Cardo and decumanus ran between each of the said gates. The intersection of the streets held the forum, which was considered as the city’s focal point. The forum was an open area housing the main buildings of the community and functioned as the assembly area for the townspeople. Likewise, the forum was also the site of commercial and religious buildings. The limited horizontal spread of the town was due impart to the fact that people needed to live in an area where the economic, religious, and political center can be easily reached. Moreover, the city structure was also appropriate for the easy movement of goods. Despite the high density of settlement in the city, Rome flourished during the empire and became the location of large recreational buildings. As such, as the number of people grew, various structures were also created in order to be used by the public (Chant & Goodman, 1999).
Roman Concrete and Construction Materials
Even though they borrowed the aesthetic design concepts of both Greeks and Etruscans by expanding, ornamenting, and elaborating the said designs in order to hasten the design’s quality, the Romans used their organizational and technical skills in order to develop and further enhance their engineering works (Pile, 2005). The development of the Roman concrete is one of the many evidences of Roman genius that has been applied and reinforced by ancient engineering. Roman concrete or the “opus caementicium” is identified as an artificial form of construction material made up of a binding agent, aggregate, and water. The aggregates are composed of gravel, stone, and rubble chunks, broken brick and the likes. On the other hand, binding agent is a material which, when mixed with watered aggregate, solidifies. The end result of the mixture is known as mortar (Yegul, 2009).
The contribution of the Romans in the said basic construction mixture is the addition of the binding agent “pozzolona,” a volcanic dust from central Italy. The aggregate is then combined with the pozzolona in order to make an exceptionally strong binding agent. Unlike the traditional Greek method of construction (cut-stone and post-and-beam), the Romans saw the use of opus caementitium to be a far more superior method. To summarize its benefits, the advantages of opus caementitium are as follows: (1) exceptionally strong and capable of spanning great distances, evident in the design of arches, domes, and vaults; (2) notably flexible, making it appropriate for molding space since concrete are poured in order to form a certain design; (3) does not require too much skilled labor, thereby making it cheap; (4) compared to cut stone masonry, Roman concrete is easier to construct; and (5) provides safety since concrete-vaulted roofing is fireproof, unlike its traditional roofing counterpart which is made up of wooden beam (Yegul, 2009, n.p.).
The Romans took advantage of using the said construction mixture in the creation of various structures including harbor structures. Opus caementitium has become the formidable tool for Roman engineering. However, despite the many benefits offered by the pertained mixture, its drawback is characterized by its unsightliness. Hence, during the mixture’s interception, opus caementitium was only applied to structures that were not too publicized. Due to the Romans’ high regard for aesthetic value, they eventually found a solution for the ugly surfaces left by the concrete mixture by means of covering or surfacing them with materials which they perceived as visually satisfying. The slabs of tufa, which are also volcanic remains from Italy, are the most recognized form of covering. The tufa are then cut into irregular sizes and arranged as a mosaic (opus incertum), while others are shaped into square blocks (opus recticalum) and cones and then later on embedded into the concrete. Other surfacing materials include kiln-baked bricks, mixtures of opus incertum, opus recticakim, brick, small stone blocks, ashlar which is often referred to as opus mixtum, and the white marbles quarried from Carrara of North Italian Peninsula (Yegul, 2009).
Engineering Projects and Utilitarian Buildings
The discovery of concrete coupled with architectural skills reinforced the Romans to put their engineering capabilities into good use. Hence, they created various infrastructures that are still standing to date. Engineering projects were deemed as the most magnificent among the Roman works. There were also regarded as the greatest demonstration of the Roman power. Technical power illumined the grandeur of the Roman Empire. It also served as the validation of an emperor’s ascent to power. As such, it can be observed that most of the successful engineering projects were created under imperial leadership. Majority of the said projects were said to have reinforced the emperor’s position to be the ultimate benefactor. However, it is worthy to note that such projects allowed the flourish of the economy, thereby affecting the growth and development of regions and individual cities (Boatright, 2002).
Other than the benefits of the Roman engineering projects on the economic aspect, its benefits also expanded to areas like religion, health, and culture. As public service became a common ground for Roman societies, the development of roads and bridges, waterworks systems, public baths, amphitheaters, and other structures greatly defined and protected the rights and privileges of every Roman (Yegul, 2009).
Roads and Highways
Due to the centralized and administrative system of the Romans, the use of networks of paved highways is said to be of great advantage for political and military use. This is due to the fact that paved roads and highways ensure the fast and safe mobility of Roman troops, spread of judicial decisions, mails, and commercial benefits between cities and provinces. For the said reasons, typical Roman constructions were well-built. As such, they continued to be utilized centuries after it was built. Some of the known roads and highways include the stretch in Greek Island of Samos and the colonnade marble avenue in Sardis Turkey. The basic mixture of mosaic of heavy paving blocks closely laid on a bedding of gravel and sand are the typical materials used for Roman Road constructions (Yegul, 2009).
Bridges
In order to cross waterways and gorges, bridges are required. Bridges have become an important part of Roman commercialization, and in some cases, several Roman bridges served as an important landmark for a certain period such as the Pons Subiacus crossing the Insula Tiberina which is noted to be the earliest landmark of the Roman Republic era. Romans incorporated the use of arches and vaults in the creation of their bridges. Alongside the single or multi-span arches were concrete blocks of ashlar, and for smaller bridges, rubbles or irregular blocks were used. According to researches, studying Roman bridge design and construction is an integral part of engineering because their bridges are considered as the pioneering developments in the use of concrete technology and architecture. It was also noted that without mastering bridge construction, particularly Ponte d’Augusto’s 32-meter distance, Pantheon will not be built. One of the well known bridges in Rome is Pons Aemilius, the first stone bridge of Rome (Yegul, 2009).
Water Supply System
One of Rome’s greatest necessities may be food, but equally important is the supply of water (Hinds, 2004). The first sources of drinking water for the Romans were from springs, wells, and rainwater. As the said sources posits health hazards and could not fully supply the need of each household, the Republican rulers responded to the city’s growth by initiating an arrangement of bringing water from distant sources like the Anio river system and Sabine hills (Chant & Goodman, 1999).
Aqueducts
Roman engineering ensured that fresh water will come to the city – amounting to 250 million gallons per day (Hinds, 2004). The creation of aqueducts or the Romans waterway system brought great changes in the city’s water system and in the field of engineering. It is also considered as the most notable achievement of the Roman engineers. For over 500 years, 11 aqueducts brought water resource to the city. The water flowed through underground conduits laid over bridges that were supported by arches, while each aqueduct carried water from areas like the valleys. In its entirety, aqueducts relied mainly on slopes and gravity in order to ensure the continuous flow of water. Some of the popular aqueducts in Rome include Aqua Appia which is the commissioned aqueduct, Aqua Marcia which is the longest, and the majestic Pont Du Gard in Provence (Chant and Goodman, 1999).
Fountains and Nyphaenum
Middle class and poor Romans get their water from Nymphaenia, which is an arched grotto containing a fountain and a pool that serves water. Basically, the arched grotto was created in order to protect the whole structure as well as the water from the weather. Likewise, the said design was built for the easy identification of the structure (Tigertail Associates, 2009).
Dams and Urban Reservoirs
Other than the aqueducts and public fountains, Roman community also used dams and other water systems such as cisterns, water-lifting wheels, and siphons, in order to provide water sources in the Roman areas situated in the climatic terrain. The dam built in River Rhyndacus is thought to be the most impressive forms of dams built by the Romans. Although the said dam is no longer functional, it is an illustration of Roman engineering’s effective model of structure. Other than this, the interest of Roman city planners to use the water system as a decorative and functional element in urban use resulted in establishment of pools, artificial lakes, and urban canals which are fully integrated in the water distribution system of the whole city (Yegul, 2009).
Amphitheaters and Public Baths
Building huge stadium amphitheaters and areas with tiers of seating in a semi-circular shape that face a stage structure has often been associated with the Romans. Roman theaters and amphitheaters are complex and open structures, where the only enclosed spaces are passages that directly give access to the seating. The most important elements of such structures are the barrel vaults and arches. Amphitheaters served as areas for entertainment among the Romans. Among the many spectacles shown in the said structures were the gladiatorial combats and wild beast hunts. One of the most popular amphitheaters of all time is the Roman Colosseum or the Flavian Amphitheater (Pile, 2005).
Roman public baths or thermae are also important buildings for the society. Due to the Mediterranean work schedule practiced by the Romans (6 AM to 5 PM), public baths are seen as a form of relaxation and an area where the men and women can exercise and clean themselves. The structures are clusters of enclosed areas that utilize vaults and domes while their arched openings allow the entry of daylight. The use of under-floor spaces enables the flow of furnace heat and a flow of water. Likewise, steam and heated air are produced in the varying temperatures of the Roman bathing system. The public baths also have areas that hold activities like sports and gymnastic exercises, and they also have a space for a library. Surviving portions of baths in Caracalla and Diocletian are currently being studied by professionals in order to recreate the same interior spaces for modern purposes (Pile, 2005).
Temples
Most of the Roman temples were built as an area to praise their gods. The concept of Roman temples is straightforward, and it follows the pattern of the Greeks’ single room or cella. Much like the Greek’s cella, Roman temples house god statues in front of columned porticos. The Romans applied their own version of Ionic and Corinthian orders and the combination of both Ionic and Corinthian which is called Composite orders. Free standing columns can be found along the rear and sides of the temples. Elaborate interiors are also evident in larger Roman temples. Pantheon, which is situated in Rome, Italy and was created by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in 27th BC, is the best known Roman temple, (Pile, 2005).
Roman engineering greatly affects various aspects of their society. By maximizing their available resources and with the aid of their skills, the Romans were able to produce high quality structures that have lasted for generations. Generally, the ability of the Romans to find solutions to problems resulted in the establishment of the grandest structures that can still be found today. Consequently, the Romans set high standards in the field of engineering.
References
Boatwright, M. (2002). Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Chant, C. and Goodman, D. (1999). Pre-industrial Cities and Technology. New York, NY: Routledge.
Hinds, K. (2004). The City. United Kingdom: Marshall Cavendish.
Pile, J.F. (2005). A History of Interior Design. London: Laurence King Publishing.
Tigertail associates. (2005 October 16). Roman engineering: 100 BC to 300 AD. Tigertail
Virtual Museum. Retrieved January 19, 2009 from
http://www.tigtail.org/TIG/S_View/TVM/E/Ancient/Roman/roman_engineering.html.
Yegul, F. (2009). Roman building technology and architecture. University of California,
Santa Barbara. Retrieved January 19, 2009 from http://id-archserve.ucsb.edu/arthistory/152k/index.html.
