The Brown v. Board of Education case occurred on May 17, 1954 in Topeka, Kansas and is a significant event for the U.S. Supreme Court with great historical significance. The case revolved around Linda Brown’s denial of admission to an elementary school in Topeka based solely on her race. It also involved related cases from South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware that all posed the same fundamental inquiry: Does the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment prohibit racial segregation in public schools?
In the late 1940s, the Court shifted its focus towards equality of treatment. However, it did not directly challenge the constitutionality of the “separate but equal” doctrine until the Brown case. Chief Justice Earl Warren delivered a unanimous and concise opinion, stating that separate education facilities are inherently unequal and that racial segregation violates the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment. Chief Justice Warren argued that segregating children in schools based on race generates feelings of inferiority with lasting effects on their hearts and minds. Though it didn’t fully integrate blacks into schools, this decision prompted many school systems to address the imbalance by busing students. The ruling had far-reaching implications, influencing civil rights legislation and fueling the civil rights movement of the 1960s. Brown v. Board of Education marked a significant turning point in American education as prior to this milestone, Plessy v. Ferguson (1892) established a precedent for “separate but equal,” allowing segregated schools for white and black children as long as they were considered equal.
In the 1900s, urbanization resulted in the creation of ethnic enclaves and affected school quality. The state enforced racial segregation in schools through a legal case called Braya College v. Kentucky in 1908. Likewise, Mexican children in Lemon Grove, San Diego fought for equal education in 1931. The Berlin Olympics of 1936 played a pivotal role in breaking racial barriers in sports, allowing athletes from different backgrounds to participate. As a result, this event marked the beginning of an inclusive movement.
The Gaines v. Missouri case in 1938 served as a precursor to the Brown v. Board of Education. A black law student named Gaines desired admission into a law school in Missouri, but faced the absence of segregated facilities. Missouri was left with two choices: either finance Gaines’ enrollment at an out-of-state law school with segregated facilities, or permit him to attend school within Missouri’s boundaries. Gaines favored the latter option and ultimately, the Supreme Court mandated that Missouri either allow his attendance or construct separate facilities for him. Consequently, Missouri complied by constructing the requested segregated facilities. This particular case closely resembled the Sweatt v. Painter case in 1950, which will be addressed later.
Between 1950 and 1960, there was a turbulent period characterized by the impact of segregation on education. A significant event during this time was the Supreme Court case of Brown v. Board of Education, which aimed to integrate and equalize schools. This case challenged the concept of “separate but equal” and resulted in a unanimous ruling that stated segregated schools were inherently unequal. The judges also acknowledged that segregated education fostered feelings of inferiority and hindered children’s motivation to learn. This ruling established that black children were being denied the same protection under the laws outlined in the Fourteenth Amendment. Consequently, the Supreme Court mandated the integration of public schools.
In 1950, the judge in Bolling v. Sharpe recognized that segregated schools caused a sense of inferiority among black children, as it “stigmatizes them as inferior and suggests their unsuitability to mix with white individuals.” This perspective led the case to reach the Supreme Court, where the cause of the black children prevailed alongside the verdict in Brown v. Board of Education.
During the 1950s, the Supreme Court addressed issues of segregation and higher education. Two significant cases, Sweatt v. Painter and Gaines v. Missouri, were key in dealing with these matters. In Sweatt v. Painter, the Court ordered that an African American student named Sweatt be admitted to the University of Texas Law School because the black law school did not have the same reputation as its white counterpart. A similar ruling was made in Gaines v. Missouri, where African American students were granted admission to state universities.
The violation of constitutional rights was highlighted in McLaurin v. Oklahoma State when McLaurin was forced to use isolated seats across campus areas. The Supreme Court unanimously supported McLaurin in this case too.
These cases played a crucial role in shaping the Brown v. Board of Education case by establishing that the “separate but equal” doctrine did not apply to education.
Throughout this time period, numerous significant issues coincided with the various Supreme Court cases concerning education. Notably, the Civil Rights Movement gained momentum, America successfully launched its inaugural satellite, the Second Red Scare escalated, the Korean War commenced, and the emergence of Counterculture took place. Additionally, racial barriers were broken in sports when Jackie Robinson became a part of Major League Baseball and in literature as several black authors had their works published. Ralph Ellison’s novel The Invisible Man is a notable instance that vividly depicts African-Americans feeling unseen in American society.
The education controversies that emerged in the 1950s had historical origins. Brown v. Board of Education established the foundation for integrating the educational system, although it faced various challenges. The integration of schools led to increased racial tensions, with white students leading strikes against black students attending. Teachers witnessed a rise in crime and fighting, while test scores revealed a significant gap between predominantly white schools (scoring in the top 5% nationally) and predominantly black schools (scoring in the bottom 5%). Racial tension often resulted in riots and fights, and though these tensions have gradually decreased over time, they continue to exist today.
The educational system started giving importance to tracking as a means to address the challenge of dealing with students at different levels, which was negatively impacting the educational process. Students were categorized based on IQ tests, leading to improved achievement scores. This approach was extended to junior high and elementary schools. Nonetheless, in the Hobson v. Hansen case, the tracking system was deemed detrimental and its abolishment was mandated.
In the 1960s, racial awareness and the Civil Rights Movement saw significant advancements, with prominent leaders such as Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X emerging. The integration of schools in the deep south was the final milestone achieved during this decade. In 1963, Governor Wallace barred black students from entering the University of Alabama, leading to President Kennedy’s intervention and the threat of National Guard involvement to ensure their admission. Furthermore, in 1961, the Freedom Riders were established to integrate the busing system. Eventually, in 1972, the Supreme Court ruled that busing would be utilized as a means for school integration.
In 1978, America was introduced to the concept of “reverse discrimination” through the case of UC Regents v. Bakke. This case involved a white man who sought admission to a public medical school and used the Fourteenth Amendment and Title 6 of the Civil Rights Bill to combat discrimination. Bakke had applied twice to UC Davis Medical School but was denied both times. A faculty member encouraged him to take legal action, arguing that the program was unconstitutional because it reserved a specific number of spots for minority students. The Supreme Court ruled in Bakke’s favor, granting him admission, but did not find the program itself unconstitutional. This landmark case ignited debates on Affirmative Action and reverse discrimination, which continue to challenge the education system.
In 1999, our society continues to face the struggle of ensuring equal access and opportunity for all students. Discrimination, inadequate education funding, and the quest for effective teaching and learning approaches remain ongoing challenges. The involvement of politics in shaping education is substantial as politicians wield control over the entire system. However, their detachment often results in a lack of comprehension about our schools’ needs. These urgent matters significantly impact our education system.
