The concept of effort-to-performance expectancy, also known as self-efficacy, plays a crucial role in determining motivation levels. When individuals have confidence in their ability to perform a specific task, their motivation will be high. It is important to note a seemingly contradictory finding in expectancy theory: people may engage in low-probability behaviors if the potential rewards are exceptionally valuable. In a meta-analysis conducted by two researchers, they examined seventy-seven studies investigating the relationship between different aspects of expectancy theory and workplace criteria like performance and effort.
Although there is mixed evidence, it is generally concluded that the components of expectancy theory are positively related to workplace criteria. Additionally, it was found that effort put into the job is positively correlated with leadership skills and behaviors associated with expectancy theory. Expectancy theory has several implications for leaders and managers in terms of motivating others. Some of these implications align with other motivational theories and are considered good management practice in general. These implications include determining the necessary levels and types of performance needed to achieve organizational goals, ensuring attainability for individuals being motivated, providing training and encouragement, establishing a clear connection between rewards and performance, ensuring the rewards are sufficiently significant, analyzing factors that may hinder the effectiveness of rewards, explaining the meaning and consequences of second-level outcomes, understanding individual differences in valences, and recognizing that positive mood increases the likelihood of good performance when high valences, instrumentalities, and expectancies are present.
GOAL THEORY Goal setting is a fundamental process present in all major theories of work motivation. According to goal theory, individuals who are given specific and challenging goals tend to perform better compared to those given easy, nonspecific goals or no goals at all. However, it is important for the individual to have the necessary ability, accept the goal, and receive feedback related to the task. A goal refers to what a person aims to achieve. AAA. Basic Findings of Goal Theory The following findings are consistently observed in goal theory:O 10.
Specific goals are more effective in improving performance compared to generalized goals. Performance tends to increase as goal difficulty increases. Stretch goals lead to improved organizational effectiveness and professional development. However, goals that are too difficult can be frustrating, while powerful goals can be inspirational. These powerful goals, often associated with a noble cause, can be divided into smaller parts to make them more achievable. In order for goals to improve performance, the worker must accept them. Experiments in laboratories indicate that the importance of commitment may be overestimated. Goals are more effective when they are used to evaluate performance. It is important for goals to be linked to feedback and rewards. Rewarding individuals for achieving goals is widely accepted in management. Group goal setting is just as important as setting individual goals. Having a learning-goal orientation, which focuses on wanting to learn, enhances performance more than having a performance-goal orientation, which focuses on wanting to appear successful. Underlying Mechanisms and Concerns: One explanation for the significance of goals is that they create a difference between reality and an ideal state.
Accompanying arousal prompts individuals to achieve goals, although there is a concern that unethical shortcuts may be taken by leaders and workers to attain their goals. Employing recognition and pride as motivators through giving recognition and praise is a direct utilization of positive reinforcement, serving as a strong motivator due to it being a common human need. Many workers feel they lack sufficient recognition.
To satisfy the need for recognition in others, you can identify a commendable behavior and acknowledge it through verbal, written, or tangible rewards. Additionally, implement behavior modification techniques. Recognition offers a significant return on investment as it is either inexpensive or costs nothing compared to a monetary bonus. However, not all individuals respond positively to recognition, especially those who are shy and would feel uncomfortable with public acknowledgment. An obstacle in effectively utilizing recognition is that different people respond favorably to diverse types of acknowledgment.
For instance, individuals with a highly technical background favor a straightforward and factual account of how their work has contributed, rather than vague praise. In order to enhance its motivational effect, it is necessary to establish a connection between cognition and corporate values, while also aiding employees in achieving their personal goals. Providing prompt recognition through various means such as e-mail, text messaging, voice mail, or written notes can be beneficial. Appealing to a sense of pride by acknowledging a job well done helps satisfy the innate desire for feeling proud, thereby acting as a potent internal motivator while also acknowledging one’s accomplishments.
Switchback emphasized that the leader should prioritize pride over money by placing the compass on it. The manager should equally celebrate both the “steps” (achieving small goals) and the “landings” (the main goal), as small accomplishments foster pride. This aligns with the concept of equity theory and social comparison, which suggests that employee satisfaction and motivation are influenced by how fairly they perceive their treatment compared to their peers. The theory posits that employees hold specific beliefs regarding the outcomes they receive from their jobs, as well as the efforts they put into achieving these outcomes.
The essence of equity theory lies in employees comparing their inputs and outcomes with their colleagues in the workplace. When employees feel that their outcomes align fairly with their inputs, they tend to feel satisfied and motivated. Conversely, people assess their own inputs in conjunction with the outcomes they receive and also evaluate what others receive for the same inputs. Equity is reached when individuals perceive their own outcome/input ratio as equal to that of others. The highest level of motivation is attained when an individual’s ratios match those of the person they are comparing themselves to.
When individuals identify an inequality, they can choose from three courses of action: AAA. Request a change in the outcome (e.g., ask for a salary increase). BOO. Modify the input (e.g., allocate less time to work). CO. Depart from the situation (e.g., resign and seek a job with greater fairness). Leaders should take the following into consideration: (1) Regardless of how a productivity or cost-cutting measure is devised, it must still ensure fair compensation. (2) Leaders should strive to ensure that their subordinates perceive a fair exchange in terms of their contributions to and rewards from the organization. VOW.
COACHING AS AN APPROACH TO MOTIVATION
Effective leaders are good coaches, and good coaches are effective motivators. Although high-level leaders coach less, there is a coaching component at all levels of leadership. A survey suggests that many managers are falling down by failing to coach, including feedback and guidance. Coaching is a way of enabling others to act.
Characteristics of Coaching:
Coaching might be explained as the art of management. The purpose of the coaching interaction is to help the employee learn from the Job in order to his help his or her development.
Coaching involves trust from both parties involved and focuses on the growth and development of individuals, rather than dictating actions in specific situations. It offers benefits such as increased motivation and personal development. Misconceptions about coaching include the belief that it only applies to one-on-one situations (in reality, group coaching is also possible), that it mainly provides new knowledge and skills (when in fact it often assists with underlying habits), that going beyond instruction in knowledge and skills risks entering psychotherapy (when coaches should adopt effective parenting models), that coaches need expertise in a specific area (when a great coach does not have to be a great player), and that coaching must be conducted face-to-face (while telephone and email can be effective alternatives). Coaching skills are important as they directly influence group members.
Implementing the following suggestions can enhance the effectiveness of coaching and lead to improved performance:
- Communicate clear expectations to group members.
- Build relationships.
- Give feedback on specific areas that require improvement.
- Listen actively.
- Help remove obstacles.
- Give emotional support (Use positive rather than negative motivators).
- Reflect content or meaning.
- Give some gentle advice and guidance.
- Allow for modeling of desired performance and behavior.
- Gain a commitment to change.
Applaud good results. Viii. EXECUTIVE COACHING AND LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS Executive coaching is “A one-to-one developmental process formally contracted between a coal and a management-level client to help achieve goals related to professional development and/or business performance. Today, people from a wide variety of backgrounds become executive coaches, as well as career coaches and life coaches. AAA. Specific Forms of Assistance Provided by Executive Coaches Executive coaches help managers become more effective leaders by assisting them in various ways.
Four ways executive coaches offer assistance:
- Helping corporate stars achieve peak performance, such as uncovering untapped creativity and imagination in leaders.
- Counseling leaders on weaknesses, such as excessive hostility and impatience, that may hinder effectiveness.
- Serving as a sounding board for leaders when they confront complex strategic decisions, enhancing decision-making by encouraging broader thinking and understanding the impact of their actions on the organization.
It may be worth discussing why certain items are prioritized in a specific way. For instance, let’s take number 18: “I have a policy of not thanking someone for fulfilling their job responsibilities.” Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 10-1: Estimating Valences for Applying Expectancy Theory. Numerous individuals have never considered quantifying the motivating impact of rewards and penalties (or outcomes). As a result, this exercise can be thought-provoking. The variability in ratings will further emphasize the importance of managing for individual variations in valences.
The outcome rating scale provides excellent opportunities for student research projects, including analyzing differences in ratings across different groups. Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 10-2: The Application of Goal Theory is a small exercise that allows students to apply one of the leader/manager’s crucial responsibilities – assisting group members in setting meaningful goals. The most difficult aspect of this assignment is setting goals that align with the fundamentals of goal theory, such as clearly defining the rewards for achieving them.
Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 10-2: How Much Do I Crave Recognition? Understanding the intensity of your own recognition need can help you acknowledge that many others also possess a strong yearning for recognition. Moreover, reflecting on the desire for recognition strengthens the significance of this motivator. Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 10-3: The Application of Equity Theory presents a chance for students to apply equity theory personally. One advantage of the exercise is that it reveals the extent of their contributions.
Students who have not already visited www. Alarm. Com might find the information illuminating in terms of what others are earning who are performing similar work. Class discussion might reveal that equity comparisons are important for the motivation of some-?but not all-?students. Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 10-3: Characteristics of an Effective Coach An important purpose of this activity is to emphasize the importance of having the right characteristics to be an effective coach.
Some students will understand the significance of cultivating specific personal traits in order to become an efficient coach. Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 10-4: Coaching for Enhanced Performance. Like all role plays, students require encouragement to apply ideas from the text instead of solely relying on their current skills and knowledge. This type of role-play is typically appreciated by students as it mirrors the everyday challenges of being a manager or leader. COMMENTS ON DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES 10. 0 Formulate various expectations you have when taking on a leadership role.
What valences do you attach to them? The discussion in Chapter 1 about the satisfactions and frustrations of being a leader might help Jog the student’s thinking about both positive and negative outcomes associated with being a leader. Valences are a personal matter, but outcomes with high positive valence include power, status, and high income. Outcomes with negative valence might include long hours, time away from family and friends, and receiving so much criticism. 20. How can the influence exercised by a charismatic leader tie in with expectancy theory?
One possibility is that charismatic and transformational leaders can lead to positive outcomes, such as a strengthened organization. These outcomes can be very appealing to many individuals. Additionally, valence, instrumentality, and expectancy can all impact job performance. Valence can affect job performance as individuals are more motivated to work harder when they perceive high-valued rewards. Instrumentality plays a role in job performance as individuals are more likely to exert effort when they believe their hard work will result in a worthwhile reward.
Expectancy is related to job performance as it influences workers’ motivation. Individuals are more motivated when they believe they can achieve the required level of performance.
A potential second-level outcome of receiving an A grade in the course could include self-satisfaction, a higher grade point average, and potentially better job offers. On the other hand, potential second-level outcomes of receiving an F grade could be self-dissatisfaction, loss of a scholarship, being placed on academic probation, and not receiving desirable job offers.
A leader at Domino’s Pizza could use a noble cause such as bringing happiness to millions through delicious, affordable food that can be enjoyed with friends, family, and even alone. For workers in the Data Motors division manufacturing a $2,500 car, a noble cause could be empowering individuals to become car owners who never thought they could afford their own vehicle.
In what way might someone perceive Olin as charismatic?
Frequently recognizing and providing motivation to group members is important for building relationships and for leaders to be perceived as charismatic. It is necessary for a leader or manager to be aware of the input/output ratio of a group member in order to apply equity theory. This would involve conducting careful interviews with the group member and analyzing what the company provides them.
People typically need to engage in thoughtful introspection to comprehend the extent of their contributions. For instance, a woman who served as the captain of her high school soccer team may not have recognized that experience as a valuable leadership input she brings to the company. 80. How does coaching relate to hands-on leadership? Coaching is directly linked to hands-on leadership, as long as it is not taken to an extreme. A hands-on leader actively involves themselves in the intricacies of the operation and, as a result, is well-positioned to provide coaching. They possess a deep understanding of the activities carried out by group members. 90.
How can leaders utilize coaching to promote ethical behavior within a group? Coaching serves as an effective tool for bolstering ethical behavior among group members. Whenever the coach notices questionable ethics in action, they can provide immediate coaching to the individual involved. In a similar vein, if the coach witnesses a group member demonstrating ethical behavior in a situation that tempts unethical actions (e.g., overcharging a customer), they can acknowledge and commend that individual. Additionally, task 100 involves interviewing a manager about their coaching practices in the workplace. Ensure that you gather relevant information to share with the class upon your return.
Managers are likely to report a high occurrence of coaching because they recognize the importance of coaching. Additionally, many managers believe they are engaging in a significant amount of coaching due to its social desirability. PLAUSIBLE RESPONSES TO CASE QUESTIONS Leadership Case Problem A: Justine Salisbury Tries a Little Recognition demonstrates that while a recognition program has great potential, some adjustments may be necessary to effectively motivate the intended recipients. 10. How can you advise Justine Salisbury on the likely motivational outcomes of his recognition program?
The recognition program may not succeed in improving performance without expressed enthusiasm from store (restaurant) managers. There is a small chance that Justine is correct in assuming that once the store managers experience recognition, the motivation program will achieve its intended results. 20. What other types of recognition should Justine provide to the store managers? The answer to this sophisticated question is that we cannot determine what other forms of recognition Justine should offer the store managers until interviewing or carefully observing them to ascertain the specific type and forms of recognition they desire. 0. Would it be preferable for Justine to have a recognition program specifically for order-takers and cashiers rather than their managers? Explain your reasoning. According to Justine’s analysis, the potential for increased revenue per store lies in modifying the behavior of order-takers and cashiers. Therefore, it would be effective to direct the recognition program towards these two groups of workers. However, it is important not to neglect store managers, who are equally essential alongside order takers and cashiers.
Including other members of the crew in some small way would also contribute to the motivational climate of the stores. This case history of Coach Sally German demonstrates how coaching is often utilized to enhance performance in challenging situations. 10. What suggestions can you offer Sally German to improve her coaching of Tony Costello? Sally German’s approach seems excessively harsh. Tony Costello feels discouraged and therefore requires emotional support and encouragement. Sally appears too detached and confrontational. 0. What advice can you offer Tony Costello to make the most of the coaching session? Perhaps Tony can be more assertive in seeking assistance from Sally and the bank. He only asked one question about increasing mortgage applications approved by the mortgage committee. Both he and the bank need help as the mortgage business is suffering. 30. What is the most positive aspect of Sally’s coaching? Sally’s confrontational approach should help Tony come to terms with the fact that the bank will not change its commission-only agreement with him.
At the same time, Sally’s exhortations indicate to Tony that he will no longer receive assistance from the bank. Sally’s harsh words may assist Tony in evaluating whether he should seek alternative employment. One of the most negative actions Sally took as a coach was displaying a lack of compassion and seeming almost unaffected by his situation. A particularly severe remark was, “Do something good or be gone.” While this statement may hold truth, a crucial aspect of coaching is providing support and aid to enhance performance.
