Global concern was raised on 20 June 2000 when an English journalist published an article about the widespread violence in urban areas. This resulted in a large number of English fans being forced to leave Belgium. Authorities have cautioned that if the English Disease were to occur again, it could result in the disqualification of the English team from the tournament.
For centuries, hooliganism, also known as the “English Disease,” has posed a major issue.
Hooliganism encompasses various aspects that must be considered. Firstly, it is crucial to establish its definition. While there isn’t a definitive interpretation, hooliganism can be described as the act of causing harm to individuals or damage to property, often involving theft. Typically, this behavior is carried out by a gang or small group of youth. Hooliganism is characterized by a lack of self-control, a penchant for mischievous acts, and an inclination towards dishonesty and criminal activity. Generally, boys and young men between the ages of 15-25 are the ones involved in such actions, particularly targeting other groups who support different football teams.
Another intriguing aspect of hooligans is their perception of themselves as genuine supporters. They offer unwavering support to the team, which helps cultivate a well-known atmosphere in stadiums. Their main objective seems to extend beyond merely watching an extraordinary football match; they also crave the experience of their team’s triumph.
Football hooliganism, known as the English Disease, is a prevalent problem in several European countries including the UK, Germany, Holland, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Czech Republic, Denmark, Austria and Turkey.
Efforts have been made worldwide to tackle the damage caused by hooligans to both themselves and the environment. The European Parliament, working together with the National Parliaments of the European Union, has taken action to address violence in Europe. In September 1999, the European Council released a report on hooliganism and proposed further measures to combat this problem.
It remains challenging to observe a decrease in violence in European stadiums, despite the efforts of sociologists and initiatives from the European Institutions.
To shed light on the global problem of hooliganism, I will showcase a compilation of violent and alarming incidents witnessed in stadiums worldwide. Additionally, we will explore the origins of hooliganism, offering us a chance to examine this subject sociologically.
In 1982, a European Cup match in Moscow between Spartak Moscow and Haarlem resulted in the loss of 340 lives. Violence during the European Champions Cup Final at Heysel Stadium in Belgium a few years later caused a wall to collapse, leading to the death of 39 individuals. Another tragic incident occurred at Hillsborough Stadium in England in 1989 when 95 people were crushed to death during an English FA Cup semifinal game between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest. The police had opened gates outside the stadium to ease overcrowding, causing a surge of people onto already full terrace sections and trapping fans against riot control fences around the field.
In 1996, two soccer match incidents took place. In England, after England’s Euro 96 semifinal defeat to Germany, around 200 arrests and 30 injuries happened. At the same time in Zambia, following Zambia’s win over Sudan in a World Cup qualifying game, at least nine soccer fans were crushed to death and 52 others were injured due to a stampede. Shifting to 1999, during a violent Belgrade soccer derby, a flare ignited by rival supporters caused the demise of a 17-year-old fan.
Since its origins in 13th Century England, football has had a strong association with aggression. During that time, the sport consisted of confrontations between youth from neighboring villages and towns, which helped shape Ancient England’s version of modern football. Throughout the game’s evolution, violence has consistently been present.
In the 14th Century, there were already calls for controls on football violence, indicating that tolerance for such behavior was not widespread. However, these measures were not implemented due to the troubles occurring during matches. Instead, they were aimed at addressing the negative impact on market towns and businesses caused by ordinary citizens avoiding these areas on match days.
In 1314, Nicholas Farndon, the Mayor of London, issued a proclamation prohibiting games from being held within the boundaries of London. However, despite numerous arrests, the games persisted, and the impact of this preventive measure was limited. In subsequent years, there were further attempts to regulate the games in England and Scotland, but these bans proved to be ineffective.
During the 17th Century, numerous football fans caused chaos in towns and destroyed workplaces. However, in the 18th Century, the game gained a political importance. This shift in the nature of the game, from a disorderly conflict on an undefined playing field, was a consequence of urbanization and industrialization.
During the 1840s, the modern, professional version of soccer came to be. However, in the 1880s, violent rivalries and spectator violence were commonplace.
In the early 1900s, football continued to be a beloved activity among the working class, and the newly constructed grounds were located near their residential areas. The workingman enthusiastically dedicated himself to the game, pouring his passion and reputation into each match.
From World War I to World War II, there was a decrease in crowd violence and misconduct, specifically relating to organized hooliganism at football matches. While sporadic instances of violence still took place between 1914 and 1940, it is important to highlight that the number of women attending these matches notably increased during this period.
The New Hooligans emerged during the interwar period as the English game gained popularity and success in the postwar years. This led to record-breaking ticket sales and attendance at professional soccer games. However, the aftermath of World War II and limited economic growth caused growing public concern about working class youth, rock and roll, especially Teddy Boys. Additionally, incidents of football violence in the 1960s doubled compared to the preceding 25 years.
The subculture known as Teddy Boys emerged in the late 1950s, characterized by unique fashion, hairstyles, and dance moves. They gained a reputation for violence and misconduct, and were seen as responsible for the surge in disturbances during soccer games. Engaging in various conflicts with rival fans at matches, Teddy Boys played a pivotal role in the development of soccer hooliganism, although it had yet to become widely recognized in British society. The emergence of the skinhead craze in the late 1960s marked another significant stage for hooliganism. Skinheads could be found in working class council estates, public housing, and towns and cities throughout Britain, exhibiting loyalty and pride in their community. For these rough working class youth, heavy drinking and fighting became integral parts of their lifestyle. Attending soccer matches to support their local teams provided the ideal platform for skinheads to showcase their aggressive behavior, including heavy drinking and fighting.
In the mid 70s, the early predecessors of the hooligans from the 1980s and 1990s, known as fighting crews, emerged. The fighting crew that supported Millwall Football Club in London were especially notorious. They gained a reputation for being tough and fanatical supporters. These fans were grouped based on their fighting skills and ages. However, by the late 1970s, the Millwall Fans disbanded as key members were imprisoned and the government implemented more preventive measures at stadiums. Nevertheless, the organization of activities by Millwall fans became associated with super hooligans from other teams like Liverpool, Chelsea, and Leeds.
During the 1970s, skinhead gangs gradually faded away from the terraces, but the hooligans persisted. Additionally, hooliganism spread to other European countries, leading to the British hooligans’ influence on the youth across the continent.
In order to avoid hooligan invasions, the police, Football Associations, and soccer club owners worked together. A major step was building barricades in various stadiums. Unfortunately, this resulted in a tragic event where 95 Liverpool fans were stuck between the barricades, leading to their removal.
During the mid-1970s, the British authorities implemented stricter measures to address soccer hooliganism. Although there was a brief reduction in hooligan behavior, it became evident that these actions were not enough.
With the invention of circuit TV, identifying hooligans in Britain became easier, resulting in them choosing to carry out their activities at pubs and side streets.
In the 1970s, there was a notable rise in British football hooliganism, characterized by disorderly behavior and a fondness for beer. These hooligans were driven to uphold this image due to an upsurge in English Nationalism, leading to the expansion of English Hooliganism. Throughout Europe, they took pride in being acknowledged as the most formidable national group.
This article provides an in-depth analysis of football violence in Europe, specifically focusing on England. Social scientists have extensively studied this issue and view hooliganism as a sub-culture with a well-established history. The purpose of this article is to present the different theoretical perspectives of these social scientists regarding this phenomenon.
Extensive research on hooliganism has been conducted by social scientists, journalists, and academicians since the 1960s. Specifically in England, there have been in-depth studies dedicated to investigating this issue.
Within the field of sociology, different schools of thought have emerged to examine hooliganism and provide comprehensive explanations on the origins and patterns of football violence. This research started in the late 1960s as hooliganism gained prominence in Britain. These schools generally view hooliganism as a continuation of pre-existing groups like Teddy Boys, Rockers, and Skinheads.
John Clarke and Stuart Hall, sociologists, contended that specific sub-cultural styles provided a means for young working-class individuals and males to resolve crucial conflicts in their lives. Post-war sub-cultures, including Teddy Boys and Skinheads, exemplified these types of individuals.
John Clarke asserts that skinheads, who were among the first to exhibit hooliganism, embodied working class customs. Through various behaviors, including violence, the working class youth experienced a restorative sense of community. Although they inherited the traditional affiliation with football and the supporter attributes from previous generations, they did not inherit the social controls associated with such behaviors. Consequently, violence became a means of demonstrating loyalty and supporting local teams. This behavior was attributed to the broader changes occurring within British society’s class structure.
Besides sociological studies, there were also studies conducted on hooliganism that focused on observing the behavior of hooligans and gathering accounts from fans themselves. Instead of treating hooligans merely as subjects to analyze their behavior, these studies took a different approach by simply asking them. This allowed researchers to gain an insider perspective on hooliganism and led to the realization that there were social rules within this group. Becoming a football hooligan provided young males with a sense of personal worth and identity in school or work. Violence was seen as a means to achieve success and offered an alternative path to a career.
One influential study on hooliganism focuses on the alienation experienced by the lower working class. These communities have a feedback loop that promotes aggression in various social aspects. For males in this class, heavy alcohol consumption and participating in fights were highly valued. Education and occupation did not hold significant importance as sources of identity. Therefore, this perspective primarily connects hooliganism to social class and its associated values. According to this viewpoint, an increase in hooliganism can be attributed to the rise of lower working class members, especially during the reindustrialisation period of the 1970s.
Despite being a significant issue, accurately defining and interpreting the behavior of hooligans proves challenging for sociologists. Incidents involving rival fans are described differently by investigators, observers, and journalists. These incidents can be labeled as serious violence, harmless displays, or mindless thuggery. Such lack of objectivity leads to varying views on hooliganism among sociologists. Some view hooligans as demonic individuals while others attribute their actions to sociological and historical factors, placing blame on society. Alternatively, some argue that the media and police hold responsibility for the behavior of hooligans. Consequently, there is no Europe-wide framework for comprehending hooliganism; each European country has its own unique combination of sociological and psychological factors contributing to football violence. However, regardless of their backgrounds, young men attending stadiums in different countries all participate in the same game. Theorists in countries like Italy, Germany, and Holland provide explanations for hooliganism based on domestic factors rather than solely relying on British models.
While there are common traits among fan groups in Europe, it is crucial to acknowledge that these traits may not be relevant in every European country.
Up until now, it has been observed that hooliganist behavior is most prevalent among English fans, with some imitative conduct displayed by European supporters. Moving forward, we will shift our focus to other nations and explore their instances of extreme anti-social behavior.
The occurrence of disorderly behavior is evident across all European countries where football is played. However, the nature of the disorder and violence associated with football varies and can have different causes. Furthermore, the measures taken to address football violence may not effectively tackle disorder in different cultural contexts.
In the previous section, we mentioned that there isn’t a single explanation applicable to all cross-national variations in hooliganism. Various regions have their unique concerns regarding hooliganism. In Glasgow, social class plays a significant role and religious sectarianism is a major concern. Spain focuses on linguistic sub-nationalism, while Italy’s hooliganism stems from divisions between the north and south.
Despite variations in national characteristics stemming from diverse historical, social, political, and cultural traditions, similar patterns of football violence emerge across Europe. Various countries experience a rise in violence not only within stadiums but also among fans and police. Additionally, incidents of violence extend beyond stadiums into the streets, railway stations, car parks, and bus terminals as rival fan groups clash. This three-stage process, commonly referred to as hooliganism, manifests differently in each country but remains a recurring issue across all nations plagued by football violence.
In Europe, football violence is primarily an issue within individual countries. The majority of incidents occur during club matches, while supporters of national teams tend to behave better. However, English football supporters defy this trend. Rivalries with Germany, Netherlands, and Turkey have resulted in violence. Nevertheless, it is a common pattern across Europe that fans cause more trouble when attending away matches rather than supporting their team at home.
Aside from Britain, Italy, Germany, Netherlands, and Belgium are recognized for the extent of violence occurring in their stadiums. According to the provided data, 10% of supporters in these countries are identified as violent supporters.
Austria, Sweden, and Denmark experience similar issues with football-related violence, although the intensity of these incidents is comparatively lower. In Denmark, there is a growing trend of embracing a non-violent fan culture called “roliganism,” which opposes hooliganism and promotes peace. The term “rolig” itself translates to peaceful.
France, Spain, Portugal, and Switzerland face various issues, but football violence is not a significant worry in these nations.
There is occasional violence in Greece, Czech Republic, Albania, and Turkey. While there are violent supporters in these countries, they are exhibiting early signs of hooligan behavior. However, during the UEFA cup semi-final games, we saw the arrival of English fans and Turkish fans known for their nationalist tendencies, which sparked discussions about hooliganism in Turkey.
This paper focuses on the prevalence of violent behaviors among supporters in Britain and other European countries. Although similar occurrences can be observed in America, Africa, Asia, and other parts of the world, they are not as frequent as in Europe.
Based on the aforementioned, it can be concluded that hooliganism should not be solely attributed to England, and it would be incorrect to solely blame British supporters for the violent conduct witnessed in stadiums.
After discussing the origins, theories, and international aspects of football hooliganism, it becomes evident that this is a significant societal issue in Europe. So, what steps can Europeans take to address this problem? This section aims to find a solution to this question and present the forthcoming efforts of European initiatives in implementing preventive measures to combat hooliganism.
United Kingdom implemented the most crucial actions to combat football hooliganism, facing the earliest and most severe issues in this regard. Additionally, it was the sole country that received expulsion from all European competitions. This expulsion, along with other significant preventive measures, followed the tragic incident at Heysel Stadium where 39 Juventus fans lost their lives during clashes with Liverpool supporters. To address these challenges, British Police and the Government implemented numerous measures, leveraging technological advancements such as closed-circuit television and computer databases.
The use of technology after the 1990s greatly assisted the police and officers in addressing hooliganism, whereas during the 1960s and 1970s, the methods employed were quite limited. This involved the utilization of plain-clothes officers at domestic games, as well as police officers escorting crowds on horseback and with the assistance of police dogs.
During the 1990s, there was a shift in the way fans were controlled inside stadiums, with clubs increasingly relying on stewards instead of police. This shift resulted in a decline in the ratio of police to fans. Clubs like Chelsea and Leicester started employing stewards to manage security within the stadium, while police officers were only called in to remove individuals if they were breaking the law. Stewards, on the other hand, followed the specific agenda of the clubs and enforced club rules by rejecting people who broke them.
Another significant development in the fight against hooliganism was the implementation of closed-circuit television (CCTV) in football stadiums during the 1980s. This allowed football fans to be monitored through camera surveillance, enabling the police to differentiate between hooligans and regular supporters. The introduction of CCTV also led to the widespread use of hand-held video cameras as part of police strategies to prevent violence, collect information, and assess crowd control effectiveness.
Technological advancements have also played a significant role in enhancing police surveillance operations. In 1985, the Hoolivan was introduced, incorporating state-of-the-art technology. This sophisticated equipment allowed the police to establish radio communication with all officers present both inside and outside the stadium, as well as connect with the closed circuit television cameras located in and around the premises. The Hoolivan was typically deployed during high-intensity matches or when the police had specific concerns regarding a particular group of supporters.
After the tragic events in Heysel Stadium in 1985 and the Bradford fire in which 56 people lost their lives, the government responded by taking more extensive measures. In 1989, the Football Spectators Act was introduced to address the disorderly incidents of 1985. As part of this act, the Football Licensing Authority was established to grant licenses to venues that allow spectators to attend football matches. The main focus of the act was to make it mandatory for supporters to carry identity cards for all league, cup, and international matches in England.
Following the Hillsborough Stadium disaster in 1989, where 95 Liverpool fans were fatally crushed, Lord Taylor issued 43 separate recommendations that were to be immediately implemented by all football leagues in the upcoming season. These recommendations were published in the final report on hooliganism in January 1990, which emphasized the lack of communication between football authorities and fans, as well as the poor conditions of football grounds. The key recommendations included converting all football league grounds into all-seater stadiums by the year 2000, criminalizing ticket-touting, and introducing new laws to address offenses inside football stadiums.
After the Heysel Tragedy in 1985, real cooperation between police forces and football authorities in Europe to address hooliganism began. Four major European initiatives were implemented to tackle football violence. The Council of Europe adopted the European Convention on spectator violence and misbehaviour at sport events. The European Council called on all member countries to confront violence. The European Parliament proposed various measures to combat football hooliganism. Additionally, the report of the Committee on Culture and Education of the European Assembly introduced preventive measures for football hooliganism, such as international cooperation, active involvement of clubs, sharing information about fans and hooligans, excluding hooligans from matches, and communication with fans by police, clubs, stewards, or fan coaches. The report also included agreements with UEFA regarding Euro 2000 matches and the ticketing system to prevent violence. However, despite these efforts, hooliganism continued to be a growing social problem.
These social problems can be seen in various events, such as the recent incidents in Turkey and Copenhagen, as well as the events that occurred during Euro 2000 in Belgium.
I discussed the efforts made to combat hooliganism leading up to Euro 2000. Despite numerous preventative measures implemented, it became evident that these measures were insufficient in curbing football-related violence. The initiatives taken by European officials proved to be limited in effectiveness. Therefore, it is imperative for Europe to adopt stronger preventative and decisive actions, such as prohibiting Britain’s participation in football matches. To conclude my essay, I would like to reference an article written by Graham L. Jones on June 26, 2000, which provides a useful summary of the efforts to address hooliganism.
The call to action is clear and urgent: It is time to ban the British team from Euro 2000. We should not waste another minute. Despite it being my own country that I am referring to, I believe that the team and players should pay the consequences for the English Government and judiciary’s failure to address hooliganism effectively. For more information on this topic, please refer to the following resources:
– Holt, R. (1989). Sport and the British. Oxford: Oxford University Press
– Kerr, H. (1994). Understanding Soccer Hooliganism. Buckingham: Open University Press
– Taylor, R. (1992). Football and its Fans. Leicester: Leicester University Press
– Resources from Internet:
– noviolence.com/archives
– dailynews.yahoo.com-22.06.2000
– bbc.com- Hooliganism made in England but big abroad-26.02.1998
– titonet.com/hooligans
– thesportjournal.com- A developmental view of soccer hooliganism by A.J Harley
– intorminc.co.uk- Hooliganism-a political football
– eserver.org- Playing for England by Paul Smith
