Definition:
Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth and animal health. Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earth’s rocky surface. The organic portion, which is derived from the decayed remains of plants and animals, is concentrated in the dark uppermost topsoil. The inorganic portion made up of rock fragments, was formed over thousands of years by physical and chemical weathering of bedrock. Productive soils are necessary for agriculture to supply the world with sufficient food.
There are many different ways that soil can become polluted, such as:
- Seepage from a landfill
- Discharge of industrial waste into the soil
- Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
- Rupture of underground storage tanks
- Excess application of pesticides, herbicides or fertilizer
- Solid waste seepage
The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are: •
- Petroleum hydrocarbons
- Heavy metals
- Pesticides
- Solvents
Causes of Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage links, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensities of chemical usage.
A soil pollutant is any factor which deteriorates the quality, texture and mineral content of the soil or which disturbs the biological balance of the organisms in the soil. Pollution in soil has adverse effect on plant growth.
Pollution in soil is associated with
- Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
- Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides • Dumping of large quantities of solid waste
- Deforestation and soil erosion
- Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
Soil nutrients are important for plant growth and development. Plants obtain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from air and water. But other necessary nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur and more must be obtained from the soil. Farmers generally use fertilizers to correct soil deficiencies. Fertilizers contaminate the soil with impurities, which come from the raw materials used for their manufacture. Mixed fertilizers often contain ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), phosphorus as P2O5, and potassium as K2O. For instance, As, Pb and Cd present in traces in rock phosphate mineral get transferred to super phosphate fertilizer. Since the metals are not degradable, their accumulation in the soil above their toxic levels due to excessive use of phosphate fertilizers, becomes an indestructible poison for crops.
The over use of NPK fertilizers reduce quantity of vegetables and crops grown on soil over the years. It also reduces the protein content of wheat, maize, grams, etc., grown on that soil. The carbohydrate quality of such crops also gets degraded. Excess potassium content in soil decreases Vitamin C and carotene content in vegetables and fruits. The vegetables and fruits grown on overfertilized soil are more prone to attacks by insects and disease.
Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides. Plants on which we depend for food are under attack from insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses, rodents and other animals, and must compete with weeds for nutrients. To kill unwanted populations living in or on their crops, farmers use pesticides. The first widespread insecticide use began at the end of World War II and included DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and gammaxene. Insects soon became resistant to DDT and as the chemical did not decompose readily, it persisted in the environment. Since it was soluble in fat rather than water, it biomagnified up the food chain and disrupted calcium metabolism in birds, causing eggshells to be thin and fragile. As a result, large birds of prey such as the brown pelican, ospreys, falcons and eagles became endangered. DDT has been now been banned in most western countries. Ironically many of them including USA, still produce DDT for export to other developing nations whose needs outweigh the problems caused by it. The most important pesticides are DDT, BHC, chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, aldrin, malathion, dieldrin, furodan, etc. The remnants of such pesticides used on pests may get adsorbed by the soil particles, which then contaminate root crops grown in that soil. The consumption of such crops causes the pesticides remnants to enter human biological systems, affecting them adversely.
An infamous herbicide used as a defoliant in the Vietnam War called Agent Orange (dioxin), was eventually banned. Soldiers’ cancer cases, skin conditions and infertility have been linked to exposure to Agent Orange. Pesticides not only bring toxic effect on human and animals but also decrease the fertility of the soil. Some of the pesticides are quite stable and their bio- degradation may take weeks and even months. Pesticide problems such as resistance, resurgence, and heath effects have caused scientists to seek alternatives. Pheromones and hormones to attract or repel insects and using natural enemies or sterilization by radiation have been suggested.
Dumping of Solid Wastes
In general, solid waste includes garbage, domestic refuse and discarded solid materials such as those from commercial, industrial and agricultural operations. They contain increasing amounts of paper, cardboards, plastics, glass, old construction material, packaging material and toxic or otherwise hazardous substances. Since a significant amount of urban solid waste tends to be paper and food waste, the majority is recyclable or biodegradable in landfills. Similarly, most agricultural waste is recycled and mining waste is left on site.
The portion of solid waste that is hazardous such as oils, battery metals, heavy metals from smelting industries and organic solvents are the ones we have to pay particular attention to. These can in the long run, get deposited to the soils of the surrounding area and pollute them by altering their chemical and biological properties. They also contaminate drinking water aquifer sources. More than 90% of hazardous waste is produced by chemical, petroleum and metal-related industries and small businesses such as dry cleaners and gas stations contribute as well. Solid Waste disposal was brought to the forefront of public attention by the notorious Love Canal case in USA in 1978. Toxic chemicals leached from oozing storage drums into the soil underneath homes, causing an unusually large number of birth defects, cancers and respiratory, nervous and kidney diseases.
Deforestation
Soil Erosion occurs when the weathered soil particles are dislodged and carried away by wind or water. Deforestation, agricultural development, temperature extremes, precipitation including acid rain, and human activities contribute to this erosion. Humans speed up this process by construction, mining, cutting of timber, over cropping and overgrazing. It results in floods and cause soil erosion. Forests and grasslands are an excellent binding material that keeps the soil intact and healthy. They support many habitats and ecosystems, which provide innumerable feeding pathways or food chains to all species. Their loss would threaten food chains and the survival of many species. During the past few years quite a lot of vast green land has been converted into deserts. The precious rain forest habitats of South America, tropical Asia and Africa are coming under pressure of population growth and development (especially timber, construction and agriculture). Many scientists believe that a wealth of medicinal substances including a cure for cancer and aids, lie in these forests. Deforestation is slowly destroying the most productive flora and fauna areas in the world, which also form vast tracts of a very valuable sink for CO2.
Pollution Due to Urbanisation
Urban activities generate large quantities of city wastes including several Biodegradable materials (like vegetables, animal wastes, papers, wooden pieces, carcasses, plant twigs, leaves, cloth wastes as well as sweepings) and many non-biodegradable materials (such as plastic bags, plastic bottles, plastic wastes, glass bottles, glass pieces, stone / cement pieces). On a rough estimate Indian cities are producing solid city wastes to the tune of 50,000 – 80,000 metric tons every day. If left uncollected and decomposed, they are a cause of several problems such as • Clogging of drains: Causing serious drainage problems including the burst / leakage of drainage lines leading to health problems. Barrier to movement of water: Solid wastes have seriously damaged the normal movement of water thus creating problem of inundation, damage to foundation of buildings as well as public health hazards.
Foul smell: Generated by dumping the wastes at a place. Increased microbial activities: Microbial decomposition of organic wastes generate large quantities of methane besides many chemicals to pollute the soil and water flowing on its surface When such solid wastes are hospital wastes they create many health problems: As they may have dangerous pathogen within them besides dangerous medicines, injections.
Pollution of Underground Soil
Underground soil in cities is likely to be polluted by
- Chemicals released by industrial wastes and industrial wastes
- Decomposed and partially decomposed materials of sanitary wastes
Many dangerous chemicals like cadmium, chromium, lead, arsenic, selenium products are likely to be deposited in underground soil. Similarly underground soil polluted by sanitary wastes generate many harmful chemicals.These can damage the normal activities and ecological balance in the underground soil
Causes in Brief:
- Polluted water discharged from factories
- Runoff from pollutants (paint, chemicals, rotting organic material) leaching out of landfill • Oil and petroleum leaks from vehicles washed off the road by the rain into the surrounding habitat
- Chemical fertilizer runoff from farms and crops
- Acid rain (fumes from factories mixing with rain)
- Sewage discharged into rivers instead of being treated properly • Over application of pesticides and fertilizers
- Purposeful injection into groundwater as a disposal method • Interconnections between aquifers during drilling (poor technique) • Septic tank seepage
- Lagoon seepage
- Sanitary/hazardous landfill seepage
- Cemeteries
- Scrap yards (waste oil and chemical drainage)
- Leaks from sanitary sewers
Effects of Soil Pollution
Agricultural
- Reduced soil fertility
- Reduced nitrogen fixation
- Increased erodibility
- Larger loss of soil and nutrients
- Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs
- Reduced crop yield
- Imbalance in soil fauna and flora
Industrial
- Dangerous chemicals entering underground water
- Ecological imbalance
- Release of pollutant gases
- Release of radioactive rays causing health problems
- Increased salinity
- Reduced vegetation
Urban
- Clogging of drains
- Inundation of areas
- Public health problems
- Pollution of drinking water sources
- Foul smell and release of gases
- Waste management problems
Environmental Long Term Effects of Soil Pollution
When it comes to the environment itself, the toll of contaminated soil is even more dire. Soil that has been contaminated should no longer be used to grow food, because the chemicals can leech into the food and harm people who eat it. If contaminated soil is used to grow food, the land will usually produce lower yields than it would if it were not contaminated. This, in turn, can cause even more harm because a lack of plants on the soil will cause more erosion, spreading the contaminants onto land that might not have been tainted before. In addition, the pollutants will change the makeup of the soil and the types of microorganisms that will live in it. If certain organisms die off in the area, the larger predator animals will also have to move away or die because they’ve lost their food supply. Thus it’s possible for soil pollution to change whole ecosystems
Effects of soil pollution in brief: pollution runs off into rivers and kills the fish, plants and other aquatic life crops and fodder grown on polluted soil may pass the pollutants on to the consumers polluted soil may no longer grow crops and fodder. The following steps have been suggested to control soil pollution. To help prevent soil erosion, we can limit construction in sensitive area. In general we would need less fertilizer and fewer pesticides if we could all adopt the three R’s: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. This would give us less solid waste. Applying bio-fertilizers and manures can reduce chemical fertilizer and pesticide use. Biological methods of pest control can also reduce the use of pesticides and thereby minimize soil pollution.
Proper methods should be adopted for management of solid waste disposal. Industrial wastes can be treated physically, chemically and biologically until they are less hazardous. Acidic and alkaline wastes should be first neutralized; the insoluble material if biodegradable should be allowed to degrade under controlled conditions before being disposed.
As a last resort, new areas for storage of hazardous waste should be investigated such as deep well injection and more secure landfills. Burying the waste in locations situated away from residential areas is the simplest and most widely used technique of solid waste management. Environmental and aesthetic considerations must be taken into consideration before selecting the dumping sites. Incineration of other wastes is expensive and leaves a huge residue and adds to air pollution. Pyrolysis is a process of combustion in absence of oxygen or the material burnt under controlled atmosphere of oxygen. It is an alternative to incineration. The gas and liquid thus obtained can be used as fuels. Pyrolysis of carbonaceous wastes like firewood, coconut, palm waste, corn combs, cashew shell, rice husk paddy straw and saw dust, yields charcoal along with products like tar, methyl alcohol, acetic acid, acetone and a fuel gas.
Anaerobic/aerobic decomposition of biodegradable municipal and domestic waste is also being done and gives organic manure. Cow dung which releases methane into the atmosphere, should be processed further in ‘gobar gas plants’ to produce ‘gobar gas’ and good manure. Land pollution occurs massively during earth quakes, land slides, hurricanes and floods. All cause hard to clean mess, which is expensive to clean , and may sometimes take years to restore the affected area. These kinds of natural disasters are not only a problem in that they cause pollution but also because they leave many victims homeless.
