Stoicism, a widely misunderstood school of philosophy, has a large following. Many mistakenly believe that Stoics are cold and gloomy individuals who view happiness as evil, avoid emotions, and condemn pleasure. However, this is an inaccurate portrayal. Stoics do stress the importance of controlling intense emotions and acknowledging that pleasure is not life’s sole purpose; however, they should not be labeled in such a negative light. As explained by Dr. Zeno Breuninger, Stoics hold the belief that individuals are born with everything necessary for their well-being. The objective of Stoic philosophy is to attain inner tranquility and harmony with oneself and the world through practicing moderation and virtues.
Zeno of Citium, a merchant who survived a shipwreck in Athens, established Stoicism (331-232 BC). He became interested in philosophy and studied different schools of thought. Cleanthes (331-233 BC), initially an athlete, followed Zeno. Although not exceptionally brilliant, Cleanthes was hardworking. Neither Zeno nor Cleanthes left any written works. However, the writings of Chryssipus (281-208 BC), the third leader of the ancient Athenian Stoics, provide insight into the teachings of the early Stoics.
The Later Stoics, including Marcus Aurelius and Seneca, have written numerous works on Stoic philosophy, particularly Ethics. One notable Stoic writing is Aurelius’ Meditations. The practice of Stoicism remains relevant today, with individuals like Dr. Breuninger seeking to live a virtuous life through Stoic teachings (International).
The Stoics, specifically Chryssipus, made modifications to the logical form commonly used by Aristotle and others. Instead of stating “All humans are mortal,” the Stoics would express it as “If some person is human then that person is mortal” (Fieser). This logical approach, later expanded upon by logicians like Bertrand Russell, is known as the logic of propositions. It considers statements true if they can be reduced to one of the five demonstrable forms of the If-Then statement and is regarded as a significant contribution of Stoicism (Stanford; Ecole).
In terms of Metaphysics, the Stoics embraced materialism (Ecole). They adopted Plato’s concept that reality is defined by the ability to act or be acted upon but added that only a physical body can possess this ability. Therefore, they concluded that only bodies exist (Stanford). As a result, God must also be material. The Stoic understanding of God is as a Cosmic order referred to as Reason, Logos, or Creative Fire (Ecole).According to the Stoics, the Pantheistic God is synonymous with the universe, as it is believed that matter is inert and subject to the universal plan. This plan originates from within, where God exists as a living seed from which the universal order flourishes (Stanford). The Stoics held that matter consists of four elements: earth, fire, air, and water. While fire and air are active elements, water and earth are passive. Fire and air combine to form pneuma or breath. Pneuma possesses a constant inward and outward motion that binds matter together and imparts its qualities. Serving as both body and coexisting with other bodies in the same time and place, pneuma acts upon objects yet also functions as the soul in higher animals while caring for bodily processes in plants and animals alike (Stanford). Thus, according to Stoic philosophy, the soul is material in nature while united with the physical body.
Another principle proposed in Stoic metaphysics is called eternal recurrence. This notion suggests that the universe goes through repetitive cycles, where everything is repeated in a continuous and precise manner. In each subsequent cycle, a person will remain the same as they are in the present cycle. Every cycle commences and concludes with the same creative force that initiated the process, and the other three elements are included in the creation process accordingly (Fieser).
When it comes to Stoicism, epistemology and logic are typically considered together, as Zeno believed they should be. Other sources also support this idea based on their research organization. Unlike Plato and Aristotle, Stoics rejected abstract universals and instead believed that only specific things exist. Our knowledge of these things is based on the impressions they make on the soul, which is considered to be material. Knowledge is attained by giving assent to a cognitive impression, which is an impression made by something that must exist in order to leave its mark. According to Zeno, there are four levels of deepening knowledge. The first level is the cognitive impression, followed by casual assent, comprehension, and finally Science, which represents the highest degree of conviction in the accuracy of perception.
Zeno used a metaphor of a tightening fist to illustrate the process by which individuals are ultimately convinced and compelled to agree. The Stoics further developed this concept, arguing that cognitive impressions can only be accepted if there are no hindrances in the way. Stoicism primarily focused on Axiology, especially Ethics and the pursuit of a virtuous existence. Their central inquiry revolved around the essence of happiness. In contrast to their rivals, the Epicureans, who believed pleasure was the fastest route to happiness, Stoics held a different perspective. They maintained that authentic happiness came from possessing what is genuinely beneficial in one’s life. Thus, their understanding of goodness was deeply intertwined with their approach to attaining happiness.
The Stoics believed that the only good thing is Virtue and they identified four main virtues: Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, and Temperance. They stressed that genuine happiness can only be achieved by living a virtuous life. Vice was regarded as the sole evil. However, not everything could be classified as either virtue or vice; instead, all other things were considered indifferent. This perspective was slightly modified when it came to wealth and poverty – although both were indifferent, wealth had some value that made it more preferable than poverty even though it wasn’t inherently good. Therefore, there were positive indifferents (such as plenty being more desirable than poverty), negative indifferents (e.g., sickness compared to health), and truly indifferent indifferents (like pain versus its absence). In the end, only the virtues contributed to a good life.
Stoics believe that living in harmony with nature requires the practice of certain virtues. Their belief in a fixed cosmic cycle, driven by the divine force of reason, leads them to the conclusion that events in their lives are predetermined and unavoidable (Fieser). Therefore, it is futile to resist the inevitable. We are born without possessions, and we will eventually have to give them up or use them elsewhere (International). This idea can be illustrated by the example of a child crying when their toy is taken away by another child. Stoics learn to accept their circumstances and live in accordance with nature, accepting whatever fate brings their way. It is within our power, at all times and in all places, to be content with our current situation, to treat others with fairness, and to effectively handle the impressions we receive (Aurelius 139).
According to Stanford, the Stoic believes that the only acceptable actions are those that align with nature and are virtuous, including taking care of one’s body. By cultivating virtues, the Stoic is able to find contentment with their current situation and desires nothing more than what they already have. As Aurelius puts it, the goal of the Stoic is to love and accept what is allotted to them, as it is perfectly suited for them. In this way, virtue has become synonymous with happiness as it is the only true good.
When one comprehends the Stoic perspective on good and the soul, their stance on emotion can be understood. The Stoics do not claim that all emotion is negative. Rather, they caution against giving in to passions. These passions, as labeled by the Stoics, encompass appetite and fear (Stanford; Aurelius 25). The Stoics considered passions as prompting irrational and therefore incorrect actions. If someone becomes overwhelmed by intense emotions, they are unable to live in accordance with natural law and virtues (Stoic). Consequently, it is accurate to state that the Stoics have always advocated for restraint, rather than complete abstinence from emotion.
Despite facing criticism and misunderstanding, Stoicism’s teachings on emotion and virtue have been questioned. The Stoic perspective on Virtue and Vice raises a question about indifferents that later Stoics fail to adequately explain. Furthermore, the concept of four basic elements of matter contradicts current scientific knowledge, while their belief in God as a creative fire contradicts Christianity and numerous other world religions. However, despite these flaws in Stoic thought, there are many ideas presented by the Stoics that can be applied to our lives today. A virtuous and caring leadership is desperately needed in the world. Everyone would benefit from gaining greater control over their passions and fears. Although no philosophy fully comprehends man’s purpose and the path to achieve it, the Stoics have grasped a few concepts that everyone should strive to emulate.
