Acknowledgements There are a lot of people behind this work.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank all of them who gave me support and encouragement throughout the time I worked on the dissertation, although words can never express the true depth of my feelings. I would like to covey my appreciation especially to my supervisor _______, for his/her outgoing patience and guidance when work on the dissertation was in progress. I am also grateful to all the other lecturers on the ________ course, who helped me in my study. My grandmother and my parent’s consistent belief in me and in what I am trying to achieve has been a particular source of strength, seeing me through the times of self doubt.
To them , my love and Thanks. Chapter One: Introduction “The beauty of life is involved very largely with the outline of its scenery”-THEODORE DREISER 1.1. Aims.
The concept of landscape evokes different meanings to different people and even for the same person; the interpretation of the same landscape may vary at different junctures in life. There is a marked propensity amongst students to view landscapes from the view point of identified individual and grouped structures as they present themselves in the existing form (Jackle 1987). This perception of form emanates from perceiving landscape as a function, which in its static sense indicates the inherent utility of the object at any given time and in its dynamic sense conveys varying forms of utility evolving over time. This manner of perceiving the landscape only from its utility function tends to overlook the other characteristics of the place.
This has also been stated by Geographer Edward Relph who said that the perception of each individual to landscape is influenced by a combination of various factors like emotion, memory, personal experience, imagination, existing conditions and desire that the same landscape can be perceived and interpreted in several distinct ways (Jackson 1984).Thus a study of landscapes and the aspects related to its visualizations and perceptions has to begin with the concept of place and exploring the manner in which various people define different kinds of places with varying motives and intent in mind. Thus, place and its various connotations become a fundamental concept to the study of landscape as it is the crucial link between the studies of landscape to human behavior. This leads to the other related issues of various conclusions drawn by people when seeing a landscape, the interpretation: functional or aesthetic that they assign, the relation to memory, past experience and the impact it has on the present.
These kinds of queries demand a different approach to the topic of landscape. This thesis is intended to explore concepts basic to that reorientation. 1.2 ObjectivesThe dissertation will undertake the following objectives:-· Impact of landscape on culture.
· Impact on memory of landscapes.· History of landscape painting and our relationship with the landscape.· Contemporary painters and their connections to urban and rural landscape. 1.
3 The Significance of the Study.The propensity of most people concerned with landscape and its relevant facets is to avoid the inherent aesthetics associated with it, both visual and otherwise. The landscape should be read and interpreted as per the function rather than mere visual appraisal, since the act of visual appraisal is not as important as the understanding of places which have been settled in. General consensus states that a holistic comprehension of landscape can emerge only if there exists an awareness of the significance of the cultural, social, economic, and political contexts associated with landscapes.
However this is fairly restrictive and ignores the basic aesthetic values (Jackson) This is so because of the connotations inherent with the interpretations of any given landscape. The behavior of people is determined by their perception of what they see in a landscape than what the actual structure is. Hence the landscape as seen by a painter will be viewed differently as that by a real estate developer or from the view point of a common man. The varying experiences and memories that people associate with a particular place dictate their response in daily life.
This thesis will focus it attempts to study the relation between landscape and the various aspects of human life it touches like memories, human behavior, and its impact on culture and the influence it exerts on the landscape paintings of the particular era. In doing so, it will tend to move across various disciplines without really being an in depth study of any of these fields in particular. The essence of this thesis is to highlight the impact of landscape on human behavior and human responses. Chapter Two: Literature Review.
“The world is but canvas to our imagination” Henry David Thoreau 2.1 Perceptions of LandscapesStudy of landscapes involves the intermingling and transcending of many traditional academic divisions and disciplines (Layton and Ucko, 1999 p2). The implications of the term include a wide spectrum of activities as more fields are added. For example, a recentdiscussion on economics studies in Cameroon was entitled ‘Looking at financial landscapes’ (Rowlands 1996).
2.1.1. Two Definitions of LandscapesSince the implications of landscapes inherently hold different implications to different people, it can be seen as a particular means to convey concepts to the others or it could also be a manner of referring to physical entities.
The fact that the same physical landscape can be perceived differently by people has also been endorsed by Franklin and Bunte 1997; and Pokotylo and Brass 1997. In recent times, there has been prolific writing on the topic of landscapes which subsequent to exhaustive and detailed discussions have conclusively established that landscape; as a term: can be equally applied to refer to either an environment, mostly artificial or to a piece of representation like a painting, which amplifies the connotations attributed to such a setting. (Olwig 1993:307, 312). The writings of Penning ,Rowsell and Lowenthal in 1986; Bender in 1993;and Hirsch in 1995 are broadly in agreement with this conclusion.
This issue gets further complicated due to the ‘the colonization of nature by landscape’ (Olwig 1993:332) in which the constructions of decorative gardens, beautiful and aesthetic buildings or ornamental fountains; lakes etc converts the landscape itself in to a signifier. This is in contrast to the landscape paintings which intend to project the ideas and values of the subject landscape in question. Gosden and Head defined these multiple senses as the “useful ambiguity” of landscape (1994:113). 2.
1.2 Ambiguity.The useful ambiguity of landscape as established by Gosden and Head states that it includes the conceptual and the metaphysical aspects of landscape. While this inherentambiguity may be useful to a certain extent, it tends to conceal the various interpretations that writers can conclude when they deal with landscape.
One particular line of thought, amplified by Crystal places landscape on the same pedestal as an environment independent of its inhabitants, since its basic characteristics have not been significantly changed by human impact(1990:412). Another viewpoint propounded by Daniels and Cosgrove (1988:1) defines landscape as a cultural image, involving a pictorial method of depicting, presenting or symbolizing the environment. The case for a single definition for landscape has been strongly mooted by Ingold (1993:153-7), it is considered unnecessary by Olwig on the grounds that the two definitions coexisted and were widely in use for quite some time (Olwig 1993:339-40). 2.
1.3 Weberian Distinction These definitions of landscape can be categorized in terms of the Weberian distinction between explanation and understanding. Thus according to Weber (1947:79ff), explanation is based upon a study of statistical recording of data pertaining to human behavior with respect to sociological laws, whereas understanding relied on the analysis of meaningful interaction with the objective of identifying the implications of actions by the concerned actors at a particular place and time which they attribute to others or their own behavior. In terms of approaches, a cultural approach would endeavor to understandbehavior as meaningful, whereas an ecological approach would assess behavior as a response to external causes.
To surmise, it can be seen that while critics tend to identify external factors applicable to both: natural and social scenarios, in the first scenario, thelandscape is treated as an object that can be described but is devoid of perception. In the second approach, landscape conveys the expression of an idea which requires the analyst to comprehend, assimilate and include into his discourse. A review of similar debates in psychology can also be obtained from Stokols and Shumaker (1981). 2.
2 History2.2.1 Interpreting Monuments.Cosgrove (1984) and Olwig (1993, 1996) have enunciated the employment of landscape as a tool for conveying an ideologically motivated representation of the environment in their work.
The origin of the modern concept of landscape is traced back to the times when landscape painting as a genre received active patronage from the elitist mercantile class. This approach has been further refined by archaeologists and anthropologists who claim that this understanding can be employed gainfully in the study of ancient landscapes and monuments which inherently possess huge amount of cultural traditions and history. These monuments reveal important aspects pertaining to the power equations and the hierarchy as it existed in those times. (Bender 1993; Hirsch and O’Hanlon 1995).
Evans and Hernando realized that the study of landscape demands that the ability to read landscapes from the view point of another culture and translating those findings for yet another audience is of crucial importance (1997, 10-13). The problem of interpreting landscapes belonging to other times will be discussed at a later stage in this thesis.2.2.
2 History through LandscapesSimon Schama due to his prolific writing and his style can lay claim to be the most widely read historian of the decade. Besides the authenticity and merit of his works, it is his use of anecdote and story as a medium of conveying his arguments that is the most striking aspect of his literary achievements. These notable features of his writing style induce critics to read his works from the view point of literature as well as postmodern histiography.In his book Embarrassment of Riches, Schama inserts himself in the narrative of the book as a veritable tour guide, apart from his self appointed role of onsite researcher and takes the reader through a journey in Dutch Culture.
The book is full of anecdotes and descriptions of Dutch culture and the environment that it evokes an unseen but positively feeling of linking with the Dutch past to the present. (1991, 15). This manner of narrating a story in which the narrative is interspersed with personal reminiscences or by intrusion of the author (which at times dictates the path to be taken-through different countries) is a strategy which is structural in Landscape and Memory. Description of the;;treatment meted out to the Jews in the book is interrupted and superimposed by the personnel experience of Schama who was a Jew himself.
The consumption of Bison meat evokes memory of the German retreat from Poland in 1918(1995, 37-38) just as memories of eating deep-fried whitebait heralds the transition from Continental fountains to romanticization of the Thames (1995, 352-53). This type of structural and temporal incoherence lends itself to a degree of intimacy which has been compared to affects of the experience of tour guides, which influenced the level of interest and information that could be generated (Wilson, 1996, 55) This intrusive narration style functions as a statement of honesty and immediacy. A good example is the meeting with Anselm Kiefer’s Hermanns-Schlacht book (1995, 129), in which Landscape and Memory is presented as a documentary of (historical) experience.Schama in his autobiographical narrative creates an end to the avoidable ambiguity.
For instance, the memories of England are innocent and aqueous and down to earth. (1995, 1-5, 352-53).It is thus easy to interpret the autobiographical context of his book as an endeavour to trace Schamas’s spiritual journey from the rigidly adhered yet ambiguous past of his Jewish ancestry to the easygoing morality on the Thames. Chapter Three Impact on Culture of Landscape and Imagination“We are children of our landscape it dictates behavior and even thought in the measure to which we are responsive to it”.
LAWRENCE DURRELL “The eyes explore the visual field and abstract from it certain objects, points of focus, perspectives.”Yi-Fu Tuan 3.1 Landscape: Time and Space The prospects of understanding the conditions and the presumptions that shape the vision of people regarding landscape and culture cannot easily be understood(Hernando,1999: 252). Time and space are the derivative factors that confront an individual undertaking an exercise to analyze landscape.
However, it must be considered that perception with regards to time and space is governed by the rapidly evolving technological inventions and innovations which in turn exert a very important bearing on the interpretation of the landscape due to the effect it has on time and space. For instance, in 1913, the signal broadcast from the Eiffel permitted 25 countries to synchronise their time with relation to the Greenwich Mean Time. (Kern 1983:12-14).Similarly, the introduction in 1918 of the camera and the phonograph recreated the experiences of the past by preserving them for posterity, thereby moving psychologists to revise the existing discourse on psychology of memory.
(Kern 1983:37-41). The effects of the inventions were to dilute the impact of time and space as perceived so far. In the absence of these inventions and means of communications, any event occurring far away from the person would be well in the past as by the time news of the event reached him, it would be history. Similarly, any intended initiative in a far off land would be in to the future.
Today time and space are no longer a function of distance; rather they are utilized in a manner different fromknown combinations (Entrikin 1991; Elías 1992:98). Due to the wide variety of communication apparatus and the transport systems available, time and space have been relegated to the status of abstractions by themselves, meriting no definition of specific content.(Entrikin 1991:43-4). Both these factors i.
e. Time and Space apparently define the limits of possible experience and suggest that a future can be created anew to accommodate our desires and provide new contents to space. This perception is a relatively recent development in advanced countries and hence it would be safe to presume that the concept of culture with respect to landscape would be different in different countries. 3.
2 Landscape and SocietyAnthropology and other fields of research which specialize in the study of mankind and human society, proceed on the premise that humans are a constant factor to their study and are endowed with a consistent level of reason and sentiment, conscience and instincts (Elías 1990b:51). However, these aspects are only indicative of the variable relationships that the humans develop in response to the environmental needs that comprises society. A complete understanding of societies and their inherent differences can be arrived at only if we realize that a society represents a set of relations established amongst its members and that each member is a different element in that society. Sincethe individual member is defined by the relations he establishes with other members of the society, it can be safely concluded that the members may possess common structuralcharacteristics.
Each society has certain traits existing like emotions, sentiments, customs, thoughts and beliefs, in varying degrees. The order of rationality may therefore differ. 3.3.
Relation between Space and Identity “The link between the confinement of ideology and the idea of place is that the way of thought that confines natives is itself somehow bounded, somehow tied to the circumstantiality of place”.Appadurai The strong relationship between space and identity can be gauged from the fact that whole groups of societies are identified as backward, progressive and modern depending upon the cultural profile dictated by the factor of space in their respective landscapes. For instance, the tendency is to cite immobility and deep-rooted attachments to a particular place as synonymous with the lack of cultural progress. Groups with a high degree of racial interaction like the Mexicans are labeled as nomadic entity without roots since they cannot be identified to any particular space.
(Rosaldo 1988:79). Similarly, important is the frequently made association of the concept of the native and the immobility factor,particularly with reference to the implied connotation about confined spaces. Appadurai states that the image about the native is so strongly imbibed that it gives the impression of him being captive to the limited space (1988:37).Since the advanced groups tend to perceive groups whose way of thinking prevents them from leaving the confines of theirspace as a separate identity, such an interpretation is loaded with moral and intellectual implications.
Entrikin says that the relation of the native is borne out of necessity whereas that of the advanced society is contingent in nature 1991:63). This distinction does not imply that the native is anymore a greater slave of a particular thought process, infact both are equally dependent on space. While the advanced societies identify themselves at the centre of a centre-less world (Entrikin 1991:1-5; Rodman 1992:642), ‘they consider themselves to be the centre of a world centred on themselves’ (Eliade 1988:25-55).Advanced groups define their existence as being part of a ‘place and period’ while at the same time develop ‘a decentred view in that we seek to transcend the here and now’ (Entrikin 1991:1).
This dichotomy is identified as the basic premise governing the making of the Western identity with respect to space. The polarization identified in the discussion above is the main catalyst that enables western society to conceptualize ‘landscape’ in contrast to ‘nature and environment’. Landscape may be symbolically interpreted as the space we inhabit and can correlate to through experience, while all others are analytical categories in which the physicalexistence is objectified in one form or the other. (Ingold 1993).
All space is experience, and therefore, in this sense, all ‘nature’ or ‘land’ is ‘landscape’. Chapter Four Landscape and Memory “A memory is what is left behind when something happens and does not completely unhappen”Psychologist E. De Bono “Scenery exists in the interaction between material reality and human observers”KENNETH CRAIK 4.1 Memory and CognitionThe brain condenses and abstracts in memory all the visual images received and stores them.
There exists a strong correlation between the verbal language and visual images. This is so because the visual images which are coded verbally are retrieved verbally. The simple act of watching an impressive fountain may be recollected at a later stage as a statement of the fountain having been beautiful. However, had it been a vivid experience, the description would have been qualified by a detailed explanation to include colors, lights and all the accompanying accessories.
it can be seen that the remembered images by themselves may not be significant, however if it is qualified by a vivid description, then the recollection is more memorable. 4.2 CognitionAt the simplest level, cognition is defined as the psychological result of perception, learning and reasoning. Architect Peter Smith defined cognition as the use of memory to make sense of phenomena, and if necessary, to calculate the requisite motor responses.
The Limbic brain and the neocortex are responsible for the human ability of cognition. The Limbic brain coordinates the basic mental functions of the body: the visceral functions which are responsible for the deep rooted responses pertaining to sentiments. Limbic brain is responsible for conscious arousal, however, a majority of its functions fall in the category just below that of consciousness. Thus it endeavors to identify new patterns, surprise and novelties.
In contrast, the neocortex controls the higher mental function of the body and is responsible for aspects like analytical thought process and verbal ability. The other major function of the neocortex is to convert whatever input is received to corroborate with existing internalized patterns. Thus, it can be seen that memory in the Limbic brain works on the covert mode, whereas with the neo-cortex, it works on the overt level(Do Nat 1967:9). 4.
3 Cognition and Landscape The primary concern of scholars has been with the functioning of the neocortex; which works at the conscious levels of memory. During childhood, the basic memory matrix is built and aspects from the environment are added to be classified in to different sophisticated categories. The continuously received inputs are synthesized, collated, assimilated and categorized; the pattern is further developed, as the basic mental categories are supplied with enhanced details. However, since perception is increasingly dominated by the familiar inputs, there is a decline in the rate of assimilation.
Rates of information assimilation gradually level off as perception is increasingly monopolized by the familiar. De Bono feels that in the case of adults, 90% of the familiar factors in the environment are not registered by the neocortex, and the rate of input assimilation slackens in inverse proportion to the familiarity to a particular landscape or environment. The limbic brain, working at the unconscious level blocks signals from the environment it assesses as unworthy of analysis or deliberate thought. The compression of patterns within memory results in domination for attention by the select few inputs.
Gradually, the mind gets prejudiced in favour of the regular and the individual develops a propensity to see what the experience stored in memory dictates should be seen(Loci,1980,p 6). 4.4. Evoking MemoriesThe process of remembering the past is a distinctly social activity, which involves invoking incidents in history to ‘construct, reproduce or change one’s relationship with the world’ (Fentress and Wickham 1992; Middleton and Edwards 1994).
Any description of the past must be seen as an attempt to produce a ‘social portrait’ conveying ideas and emotions pertaining to social norms, customs, overall context and identity (Tonkin 1992: 1). In this exercise, Landscapes provide the viable media as they permit the reconstruction of events as they occurred through time and space(Cosgrove and Daniels 1988).Ingold (1993) agrees with this premise and adds that since landscapes have been silent witnesses to events as they unfolded in the past, they are concretized and collapsed‘taskscapes’ serving as readily available frameworks enabling people to perceive, interpret and ruminate on events of the past and the future(Halbwachs 1992 [1950]). Soja further elaborates this by opining that:-“rather than being merely a substanceless void to be filled by cognitive intuition’, the concrete spatiality of social life is the outcome of a dynamic and open-ended process in which spatial and social forms dialectically intertwine and transform one another” (1989: 17).
One of the biggest problems confronting memory vis-à-vis landscapes is the fact that names and the landscapes themselves undergo changes over time(Zerthal,2000) Sites of oppressions may no longer exist, there may be museums or any other form ofconstruction leading to a total change in landscape, but the place is still remembered for the past history. Often, individuals tend to locate the identity of a place in the landscape by connecting to the memories of the past, when it may have been different. The changes in the landscape lead to a process of recollection due to which the person may perceive and register the changes in himself. It is normal to measure the passage of time by comparing the number of houses or the number of trees that have grown since the last visit or since childhood.
When an individual returns to a known landscape that has been changed by any major incident or upheaval, he experiences a ‘dislocating impossibility of their difference.Hodgkin and Susannah contend that imaginary landscapes are equally important since they are vital to the construction of identity (2003:12). Images of lost homeland and the sufferings of a people or the brutal experience at the hands of an invading force can bepassed on to generations thereby evoking fierce loyalties and emotions. In extreme cases, this can lead to identification with the past generations losses and an intention to retrieve the losses or to exact revenge, or to reclaim what has been lost.
Or in certain cases, the reaction may be one of ambivalence since the new generation does not identify itself asstrongly to its roots. In either case, landscape is not affected by the human efforts to retain memory: over three –four centuries, the old sites of oppressions and battle fields will be meadows. The only indicator will be the memorials and the structures which will have been erected to commemorate a particular event or the number of deaths. Chapter Five History of Landscape paintings “Observing is in the main an imagining of what one is confidently expecting to see”.
French poet and art-critic Paul Valéry 5.1 Background A casual study of the various art exhibitions and the presentations leads one to the conclusion that Landscape painting is the prima donna amongst all other forms of paintings. Today, the prime focus and centre of attention of all art lovers is the landscape painting which captivates and holds lovers and admirers spellbound. A brief analysis to trace the causes of this enhanced status in art is merited since landscape painting is a relatively new field in the vast landscape that comprises art.
During earlier times, the various categories of paintings were assessed in terms of the values they represented. Hence, the paintings on historical events topped the list, closely followed by pictures with devotional themes, while landscape paintings comprised the bottom of the ladder. However, in the present tomes, this system of priorities has been rendered irrelevant although spirited attempts are routinely made to restore the paintings with a devotional or a historical theme. In the world of contemporary art the podium is shared by the landscape painting, still life and the portrait paintings.
In contemporary paintings, the demarcating line defining the various categories is very thin and hence withmany paintings, it is difficult to discriminate and identify the category to which they belong. The exercise of appreciating art for enjoyment’s sake has been denoted as a form of ‘disinterested pleasure’. The striking feature about contemporary art is the fact that the paintings represent a copy of reality; however it is not an accurate copy in that the purpose of creating it is to contemplate with delight totally detached from the possibility of intruding upon the admirers thought process. As modern art is not concerned with conveying or addressing to any aspects related to spiritual exertion, it dictates that at the very least the artist engaged in paintings should retain their sense of intellectual identity.
Modern art also departs from the old policy of conveying any ideas through works of art; as such an attempt is either discouraged, or altogether eliminated. This renders the landscape paintings, still life and the portrait group categories as the only viable fields wherein the requisite sense of independence can still be retained. Keeping this aspect in to consideration, it is possible to rationally ascribe a scale of values which places landscape paintings at the top of the ladder while the historical picture comes at the bottom.;;;;5.
2 The Middle Ages;During the middle ages, the basic purpose of recruiting paintings was for the service of God and for the ceremonies in the religious institutions like the church. The scope of the utility was further broadened to include entertainment, education and to satiate the intellectual necessities of people. At this stage in history, the cry of Art for Art’s sakewould definitely not have occurred to either the artists themselves or to the patrons. The proud, so easily accepted cry of ‘art for art’s sake’ would have sounded incomprehensible or frivolous to the Old Masters.
5.3 Verbal Thoughts and Pictorial RepresentationThis is not to suggest that during the early period, the act of deriving pleasure from contemplating landscapes and their sheer beauty was non-existent. The basic difference lay in the fact that the process of converting thought to pictorial representation could not have been undertaken by the artists without a certain degree of assurance regarding their acceptance in society. It must be borne in mind that the artists in the early period worked for remuneration and the prospects of undertaking a work whose acceptability by society was suspect could have been quite daunting.
Thus the vision and intellectual profile of the artist was not adequate, it was necessary to inculculate receptivity to a new thought process which would be contrary to long held beliefs in this regard. 5.4 SculptureDuring the classical times, the enjoyment and pleasure derived out of contemplating landscapes was conveyed by ascribing it to mythological figures represented by human bodies. Due to the fact that the religious orientation of the middle ages could be represented artistically only through human figures and the fact that the mythological figures had to be conveyed by human bodies with well defined parameters, it was Sculpture that dominated the art scene.
The subject of phenomena, when analyzed interms of aesthetics, can be broken in to two parts: the field of complete and specific dimensions with firm parameters/outlines and the world of the accidental, arbitrary, unplanned and coincidental. The inherent sense of discipline attracts art lovers to one category; whereas the basic urge for visual appeasement propels them to the other. While sculpture represented by the human body is identified with orderliness and specifics, the landscape with its lack of boundaries and specific parameters represents the other. Thus if land is considered to represent a portion of the surface of Earth, the landscape can be identified as the physiognomy of that land.
5.5 The CatalystsFollowing the Renaissance, the necessity was felt to incorporate landscape painting in to the mainstream concept of art which all artists and writers subscribed to if it was to become an end in itself.(Clark,1950: 52).Painters like Lomazzo and the Carracci were no longer contended with the existing trend of imitation that had otherwise satisfied the like of Alberti and Bellini.
The drawback in the existing styles of landscape was that landscape painting being restrictive lacked a theme or concept: literature, historical or religious. It was felt that artists doing the landscape works should give due importance to selecting their theme from nature to impart style, elegance and finesse.The intellectual imagination of the artist of this age was fuelled by two prominent poets of the time: Ovid and Virgil. While Ovid by virtue of his clarity and elaborate discussionson the fabulous was popular with the portrait and figure painters, Virgil was the beacon for the landscape painters.
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