Rome, an ancient city in Italy, had a war god as part of its ancestry and was nourished with wolf milk. These traits suggested that its people were skilled in warfare, a skill they would demonstrate repeatedly. In its early days, Rome was conquered by the Etruscans, who were the dominant civilization in Italy before Rome became powerful.
The Etruscans, who came to Italy from Asia Minor around the 12th century BC, have an enigmatic background since their language is unrelated to any other language group. Etruria, their homeland in Italy, was composed of multiple city-states. The Etruscans were famous for their exceptional abilities in metalworking and pottery, which ultimately influenced Roman civilization.
During the 6th century BC, the Etruscans reached their peak in power but began to decline by 500 BC. At that time, the Romans emerged and took control of the city to establish a republic. Initially governed by the patrician class, Rome gradually witnessed the Plebs, or common people, gaining influence. Although weaker compared to Greece and Persia, Gauls sacked Rome in 390 BC. However, during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, Romans established dominance over central and southern Italy while also exploring Greece where they conquered armies and were captivated by Greek culture. Romans emerged victorious against Greek armies but brought back an appreciation for fine art and literature to Rome.
Rome had a formidable rival in Carthage, an influential city that ruled over north Africa and the western Mediterranean. The Punic Wars were a time of humiliation for Rome as Hannibal’s Carthaginian army stayed on their territory for over ten years. Despite both Rome and Carthage’s attempts, neither could achieve victory. Eventually, the Carthaginians had to retreat, causing Rome to pursue them all the way back to Africa. In 202 BC, at the Battle of Zama, Rome emerged victorious over Carthage.
Following a period of tranquility, Rome engaged in another Punic War resulting in the obliteration of Carthage. In the succeeding centuries, the Roman Empire grew by incorporating territories once governed by Alexander the Great, including Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. While endeavoring to assert dominance over the Mediterranean area, Rome simultaneously cultivated its unique civilization and governance system.
The city reluctantly expanded its prized citizenship to a wider range of people, including those from other Italian towns as well as previously marginalized social classes. In 60 BC, Rome was led by a triumvirate consisting of Gaius Julius Caesar, Pompey the Great, and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Pompey the Great, who had previously fought against the Marian party in Africa, Sicily, and Spain in 67 BC, first cleared the Mediterranean of pirates before being appointed to lead the war against Mithridates. Meanwhile, Gaius Julius Caesar gained prominence during Pompey’s absence and demonstrated his political skills while competing with him. As leader of the popular party, Caesar strengthened his support by seeking justice for Marius and Cinna and advocating for mercy towards their exiled or executed children. He also held Sulla’s corrupt followers accountable. Additionally, Caesar found a willing partner in wealthy man Marcus Licinius Crassus.
Catiline’s conspiracy in 63 BC was uncovered and defeated by Marcus Tullius Cicero, a renowned orator and statesman, during his consulship. This plot resulted in Caesar being associated with the negative reputation that the middle classes held for ambitious individuals. Meanwhile, Pompey arrived back from the east and sought the Senate’s endorsement of his measures in Asia, as well as the granting of land to his legionaries. Despite facing staunch opposition, Pompey’s demands were eventually met when Caesar, feigning friendship, allied with him and Crassus to create the first triumvirate. While Caesar initially gained power as a popular democratic leader, he also possessed extraordinary military abilities.
During the next decade, Caesar fought the Gallic Wars and led a Roman army all the way to Britain. When he returned to Rome, the nation was in chaos. He was ordered to stop his army at the Rubicon River, but he defied this command and crossed the river in 49 BC, initiating a war for control over Italy. After succeeding there, he pursued his enemies into Greece and Egypt. While in Alexandria, a tragic event occurred: the renowned Library of Alexandria, which housed nearly 500,000 manuscripts, was set on fire. Nevertheless, Caesar had not only war on his mind but also love.
After achieving victory, he made Cleopatra the queen of Egypt and his mistress. In the year 47 BC, he emerged victorious in the battle of Zela and famously declared, “Veni, vidi, vici” – meaning “I came, I saw, I conquered.” Caesar then returned to Rome, where his presence garnered both admiration and jealousy. In the presence of such an impressive figure, the longstanding ideal of the Roman republic appeared to diminish. The triumvirate formed in 59 BC adhered to their agreement. As a result, Caesar obtained the consulship and appeased Pompey’s demands. He also won over wealthy members of the mercantile class, known as equestrians, at the expense of the Senate. Additionally, he passed an agrarian law that allowed him to reward his troops. However, his greatest achievement was obtaining a five-year military command over Cisalpine Gaul, Illyricum, and eventually Transalpine Gaul. This granted him the opportunity to gain military glory through conquests and closely observe political developments in Italy.
The triumvirs, consisting of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, renewed their alliance. Caesar secured his command in Gaul for an additional five years. In 55 BC, Pompey and Crassus were elected as consuls. As part of their roles, Pompey was given control over the two Spains and Africa, while Crassus received Syria. Unfortunately, Crassus’s death in 53 BC led to a confrontation between Pompey and Caesar. Rome experienced unrest due to the lack of effective governance, until the Senate convinced Pompey to stay in Italy. They entrusted his provinces to legates and appointed him sole consul in 52 BC. Additionally, he became Rome’s champion against Caesar.
The Senate wanted to end Caesar’s military command and stop his second attempt to become consul in 49 BC. They demanded that Caesar either disband his legions and be present in Rome during the election, or continue his command and give up his claim to the consulship. Negotiations failed to resolve the deadlock and in 49 BC, Caesar bravely crossed the Rubicon River, the southern boundary of his province, with his legions and marched on the city, thus starting the civil war that lasted for five years. Pompey and the leading members of the aristocracy fled to Greece, allowing Caesar to triumphantly enter Rome. Unlike other generals who had marched on Rome, Caesar’s victory did not result in a reign of terror; no proscriptions or confiscations occurred.
With the goal of fighting corruption and reinvigorating Rome, a set of economic and administrative reforms were put into action. Despite being in the midst of his war against Pompey, Caesar hurriedly journeyed to Spain and achieved victory over Pompey’s legates’ powerful armies. Upon returning to Rome, Caesar willingly gave up his appointed dictatorship and was chosen as consul instead. In early 48 BC, he invaded Greece and dealt a crushing blow to Pompey at Pharsalus.
Pompey met his demise in Egypt, while the Pompeian cause continued until its demise at Munda in Spain in 45 BC, resulting in Caesar’s appointment as lifelong dictator. Caesar’s assassination on March 15, 44 BC was executed by Republican nobles, specifically Gaius Cassius Longinus and Decimus Junius Brutus. Nevertheless, the autocratic empire he established would endure long after his passing.
Following the murder of Ceasar, Cicero attempted to restore the previous Republican constitution. However, Mark Antony, who was appointed consul alongside Caesar, joined forces with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Octavian, later known as Emperor Augustus. Together, they established the second triumvirate. The triumvirs began by proscribing and assassinating their opponents, including Cicero. At Philippi, Octavian and Antony triumphed over two of Caesar’s killers – Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius.
Afterward, the triumvirs divided control of the empire: Octavian received Italy and the western territories; Antony assumed power in the east; while Lepidus laid claim to Africa. Antony embarked on a journey to the eastern regions where he forged a passionate relationship with Cleopatra – Caesar’s former mistress and Egypt’s queen. They collaboratively devised plans for an empire in the east.
Lepidus, who had been summoned to Sicily by Octavian to assist in the war against Sextus Pompeius, made an attempt to seize Sicily for himself. Consequently, he lost his province and position within the triumvirate. After Sextus Pompeius’ demise and the destruction of his fleet in the Mediterranean, Octavian emerged as Antony’s sole rival. The Battle of Actium in 31 BC followed by Antony and Cleopatra’s subsequent suicides led to Octavian’s victorious emergence as the undisputed ruler of the entire Roman Empire in 29 BC. Despite the calamitous civil wars during the Republic’s final years, there was a noticeable surge in literary activity. This era known as the Ciceronian period spanned from approximately 70 to 43 BC and marked Rome’s Golden Age of literary development. The Augustan period, which lasted from 43 BC to AD 14, constituted its second part. Caesar and Cicero elevated Latin prose to its zenith while Marcus Terentius Varro stood out as that era’s greatest scholar.
Representing the poetry of the period are Gaius Valerius Catullus and Lucretius. Bibliography:
