They often draw on ideas and theories from different schools rather than holding to any singular outlook. The following are some of the major schools of thought that have influenced our knowledge and understanding of psychology: Structuralism and Functionalism Structuralism is generally thought of as the first school of thought in psychology. This outlook focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components and used techniques such as introspection to analyze the inner processes of the human mind.
Major thinkers associated with structuralism include Wilhelm Wound and Edward Twitchier. Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralism school of thought and was heavily influenced by the work of William James , John Dewey , Angel, Harvey Carr, and James Rowland . Functionalism is not associated with a single dominant theorist. Functionalist thinkers were interested in the role that mental processes play. Gestalt Psychology Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology based upon the idea that we experience things as unified wholes.
This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Behaviorism Behaviorism became a dominant school of thought during the 1 sass. It was based upon the work of thinkers such as: John B. Watson Ivan Pavlov B. F. Skinner Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by internal forces. Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior. Theories of learning including classical conditioning and operant conditioning were the focus of a great deal of research.
Many of the ideas and techniques that emerged from this school of thought are still widely used today. Modern schools of psychology Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud. This school of thought emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, the ego and the superego and the interaction of these three elements was what led to all of the complex human behaviors. Other major psychoanalytic thinkers include: Anna Freud Carl Jung Erik Erikson.
Humanistic Psychology Humanistic psychology developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanistic psychology instead focused on individual free will, personal growth and the concept of self-actualization. It differed considerably in its emphasis on helping people achieve and fulfill their potential. Major humanist thinkers include: Abraham Moscow Carl Rogers. Cognitive Psychology Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember and learn.
Cognitive psychology began to emerge during the asses, partly as a response to behaviorism. This period of time is sometimes referred to as the “cognitive revolution” The Biological Perspective Researchers who take a biological perspective on psychology might look at how genetics influence different behaviors or how damage to specific areas of the brain influence behavior and personality. The Cross-Cultural Perspective Cross-cultural psychology is a fairly new perspective . These psychologists and researchers look at human behavior across different cultures.
The Evolutionary Perspective Evolutionary psychology is focused on the study of how evolution explains physiological processes. Psychologists and researchers take the basic principles of evolution, including natural selection, and apply them to psychological phenomena. 2. While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects within psychology, there is no standard definition of what exactly constitutes ‘intelligence. ‘ Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, mineral ability, while other believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills and talents.
The following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years. Charles Superman General Intelligence: British psychologist Charles Superman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Superman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others.
He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed. Louis L. Turnstone – Primary Mental Abilities: Psychologist Louis L. Turnstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Throne’s theory focused on seven different “primary mental abilities. ” The abilities that he described were: Verbal comprehension Reasoning Perceptual speed Numerical ability Word fluency Associative memory Spatial visualization
Howard Gardner – Multiple Intelligences: One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardener’s theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people’s abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures. The eight intelligences Gardner described are: Visual-spatial Intelligence Verbal-linguistic Intelligence Bodily-kinesthesia Intelligence Logical-mathematical Intelligence
Interpersonal Intelligence Musical Intelligence Intra personal Intelligence Naturalistic Intelligence Robert Sternberg – Trichina Theory of Intelligence: Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as “mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real- world environments relevant to one’s life. ” While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardener’s intelligences are better viewed as individual talents.
Sternberg proposed what he refers to as ‘successful intelligence,’ which is comprised of here different factors: Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem- solving abilities. Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills. Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment. Final Thoughts: While there has been considerable debate over the exact nature of intelligence, no definitive conceptualization has emerged.
Today, psychologists often account for the many different theoretical viewpoints when discussing intelligence and acknowledge that this debate is ongoing. Personally feel that Howard Gardeners theory is comparatively a better description of intelligence. Intelligence can neither be calculated to a numerical value nor be taken as a single ability. It not only covers logical, verbal and adaptive abilities but also creative ability. 3. Classical and instrumental conditioning are two important concepts central to behavioral psychology.
While both result in learning, the processes are quite different. In order to understand how each of these behavior modification techniques can be used, it is also essential to understand how classical indignation and operant conditioning differ from one another. Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a major influence on the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
A few assumptions to this type of learning are that the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings, and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior. It’s important to note that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov’s classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food.
By associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus (the presentation of food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response. And it focuses on involuntary automatic behaviors. Instrumental conditioning is another term for operant conditioning, a learning process first described by B. F. Skinner. In instrumental conditioning, reinforcement or punishment are used to either increase or decrease the probability that a behavior will occur again in the future. Instrumental conditioning focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors.
For example, if a student is rewarded with praise every time she raises her hand in class, she becomes more likely to raise her hand again in the future. If she is also scolded when she speaks out of turn, she becomes less likely to interrupt the class. In these examples, the teacher is using reinforcement to strengthen the hand-raising behavior and punishment to weaken the talking UT of turn behavior. Classical conditioning involves making an association between an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about making an association between a voluntary behavior and a consequence.
In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves no such enticements. Also remember that classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner, while operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished. Section b 1 . Forgetting from long term memory (ALT) can be explained using the theories of interference and lack of consolidation. Interference theory It was assumed that memory can be disrupted or interfered with by what we have previously learned or by what we will learn in the future.
The two ways in which interference can cause forgetting are proactive and retroactive interference. LACK OF CONSOLIDATION The previous accounts of forgetting have focused primarily on psychological evidence, but memory also relies on biological processes. When we take in new information, a certain amount of time is necessary for changes to the nervous yester to take place – the consolidation process – so that it is properly recorded. During this period information is moved from short term memory to the more permanent long term memory.
This process of modifying neurons in order form new permanent memories is referred to as consolidation (Parking, 1993). Finally, aging can also impair our ability to consolidate information. Retrieval failure is where the information is in long term memory, but cannot be accessed. Such information is said to be available (i. E. It is still stored) but not accessible (i. E. It cannot be retrieved). When we store a new memory we also tore information about the situation and these are known as retrieval cues. Retrieval cues can be external or internal. 2.
Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Gestalt psychology was founded by German thinkers Max Worthwhile, Wolfgang Koehler and Kurt Kafka and focused on how people interpret the world. Law of Proximity?The law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of objects they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. Law of Similarity?The law of similarity states that elements within an assortment of objects are perceptually grouped together if they are similar to each other.
Law of Closure?The law of closure states that individuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc. , as being whole when they are not complete. Law of Symmetry?The law of symmetry states that the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point. Law of Common Fate?The law of common fate states that objects are perceived as lines that move along the smoothest path Law of Continuity?The law of nonentity states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object.
Law of Good Gestalt?The law of good gestalt explains that elements of objects tend to be perceptually grouped together if they form a pattern that is regular, simple, and orderly. Law of Past Experience?The law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. 3. Psychologists define attitudes as a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. This can include evaluations of people, issues, objects or events. Such evaluations are often positive or negative, but they can also be uncertain at times.
For example, you might have mixed feelings about a particular person or issue. Among the various factors that influence the formation of attitudes are: Personal experience. In order to be the basis of attitudes, personal experiences have left a strong impression. Therefore, the attitude will be more easily formed when personal experience involves emotional factors. Culture. B. F. Skinner (in, Czar 2005) emphasized the influence of the environment (including culture) in having one’s personality. Other people are considered important. In general, the individual being conformist or the direction of the attitude of the people it deems important.
Media. As a means of communication, the mass media such as television, radio, has a major influence in shaping people’s opinions and beliefs. Educational Institutions and Religious. As a system, educational and religious institutions have a strong influence in shaping attitudes because they lay the foundation of understanding and moral concepts within the individual. Emotional factors in themselves. Sometimes, a form of attitude is a statement hat is based on emotion which serves as a sort of channeling frustration or transfer form ego defense mechanisms. For example ,attitudes based on emotional factors are prejudice. 4.
Application of psychology in educational science is numerous. It is used to improve method of teaching. Research on classroom management and pedagogy is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students’ self- management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives to create costive teacher-student and peer relationships, manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counseling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems.
It is used to study how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. It is also applied to study how students learn and develop. A biological perspective is relevant to the study of psychology in three ways: Comparative method: different species of animal can be studied and compared. This can help in the search to understand human behavior. Physiology: how the nervous system and hormones work, how the brain functions, how changes in structure and/or function can affect behavior.
For example, we could ask how prescribed drugs to treat depression affect behavior through their interaction with the nervous system. Investigation of inheritance: what an animal inherits from its parents, mechanisms of inheritance (genetics). For example, we might want to know whether high intelligence is inherited from one generation to the next. 5. The human eye is an organ that reacts to light and has several purposes. As a conscious sense organ, the mammalian eye allows vision.
Rod anodyne cells in the retina allow conscious light perception and vision including color differentiation and the perception of depth. The eye is made up of three coats, enclosing three transparent structures. The outermost layer, known as the fibrous tunic, is composed of the cornea and sclera. The middle layer, known as tubercular tunic or eave, consists of the choroids, culinary body, and iris. The innermost is the retina, which gets its circulation from the vessels of the choroids as well as the retinal vessels, which can be seen in an ophthalmologic.
Within these coats are the aqueous humor, the vitreous body, and the flexible lens. Color vision or color vision is the ability of an organism or machine to distinguish objects based on the wavelengths (or frequencies) of the light threefold, emit, or transmit. Colors can be measured and quantified in various ways; indeed, a humans perception of colors is a subjective process whereby the brain responds to the stimuli that are produced when incoming light reacts with the several types of cone photoreceptor’s in the eye.
In essence, different people see the same illuminated object or light source in different ways. SECTION C Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior. Behavior is the result of stimulus – response All behavior is learnt from the environment. We learn new behavior through classical or operant conditioning. Theories need to be supported by empirical data obtained through careful and controlled observation and measurement of behavior. There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals. 2.
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn. The core focus of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store information. There are numerous practical applications for cognitive research, such as improving memory, increasing decision-making accuracy, and structuring educational curricula to enhance learning. 3. The term object permanence is used to describe a child’s ability to know that objects continue to exist even though they can no longer be seen or heard.
Pigged thought that an infant’s perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development. Jean Pigged proposed that assimilation is the process in which we add new information to our existing knowledge ease, sometimes reinterpreting these new experiences so that they will fit in with previously existing information. Initially proposed by Jean Pigged, the term accommodation refers to the process of accommodation involves altering one’s existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. 4.
Sensory neurons: These neurons tell the rest of the brain about the external and internal environment. Motor (and other output) neurons: Motor neurons contract muscles and mediate behavior, and other output neurons stimulate glands and organs. Communication neurons: Communication neurons transmit signals from en brain area to another. Computation neurons: Computation neurons extract and process information coming in from the senses, compare that information to what’s in memory, and use the information to plan and execute behavior. 5. Nerve impulse is a signal transmitted along a nerve fiber.
It consists of a wave of electrical deportation that reverses the potential difference across the nerve cell membranes. When the nerve is activated, there is a sudden change in the voltage across the wall of the axon. This triggers a wave of electrical activity that passes from the cell body along the length of the axon to the synapse. . The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system regulates the flight- or-fight responses. It also performs such tasks as relaxing the bladder, speeding up heart rate and dilating eye pupils.
The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system helps maintain normal body functions and conserves physical resources. It also performs such tasks as controlling the bladder, slowing down heart rate and constricting eye pupils. 7. Elaborative rehearsal is a type of memory rehearsal that is useful in transferring information into long term memory. This type of rehearsal is effective because t involves thinking about the meaning of the information and connecting it to other information already stored in memory.
It goes much deeper than maintenance rehearsal. 8. A tremendous amount of learning happens through this process of watching and imitating others. In psychology, this is known as observational learning. A few determinants are: People who receive rewards for their behavior When you have been rewarded for imitating the behavior in the past. When we lack confidence in our own knowledge or abilities.
