By examining the ancient source “Sexuality in Greek and Roman Society and Literature,” I aim to analyze the impact of divine gender and sexuality on the understanding of gender and sexuality in the Ancient Greek world. The prevailing perception of gender and sexuality in Ancient Greece suggests the presence of patriarchal ideals, even among the Gods.
Contrary to past beliefs, new evidence reveals that women occasionally held greater influence in matters pertaining to gender and sexuality. Marguerite Johnson and Terry Ryan’s book ‘Sexuality in Greek and Roman Society and Literature’ offers support for this notion. The authors contend that women possessed the ability to wield their power over mortal as well as immortal men through seduction. An excerpt from this book focuses on Hera’s scheme to deceive her husband, Zeus, who serves as the ruler of the Gods, by exploiting sexual intimacy.
This mesmerizing spectacle has been created to distract Zeus from the war between the Trojans and Greeks in Troy. It also highlights the importance of gender and sexuality in Ancient Greece regarding matters of gods, showcasing the concealed influence of immortal women by embodying Eros. Therefore, it represents the potential repercussions if women were to partake in unjust deeds, as demonstrated by Hera’s actions that unveil how women’s thinking can occasionally surpass men’s.
Hera had plans to distract Zeus and achieve her goal in the Trojan battle. She sought the assistance of Aphrodite, who embodies love and seduction. According to Theognidea 1386-89, Aphrodite possesses overwhelming power that no one can escape. This implies that even immortal men are not as mighty as Aphrodite alone.
On the contrary, women can be perceived solely as the hosts of men’s destined children. In the Eumenides, Apollo defends Aeschylus’ matricide and emphasizes the utility of women merely as vessels for carrying children. Even among the Gods, according to Apollo, they serve no other purpose. Therefore, it is debatable how much power Hera actually has over Zeus, as he also exploits her for his personal gain. Ancient Greek marriages differed significantly from modern marriages; this disparity extended beyond the superficial visual aspects.
The main factors that played a role in Ancient Greek marriages, such as politics, religion, and social security, were vastly different from contemporary marriages. It is challenging to gather substantial evidence on the mistreatment of women in Ancient Greek marriages due to the scarcity of female scholarship. This scarcity would help prevent a biased approach in sources. Nevertheless, there are some female sources that provide reliable information about the difficulties women faced from their upbringing until the time of their marriage.
According to sources such as the works of Sappho, it is suggested that women in Ancient Greece are expected to give up everything they cherish once they get married. Among the things they are expected to sacrifice is their own virginity, as highlighted in one of Sappho’s poems: ‘Virginity, virginity, where have you gone? Have you abandoned me? I will never come to you again, I will never come again’. This passage illustrates the extreme desperation felt by women before marriage due to the unavoidable loss of their virginity, symbolizing their lack of control over their marital lives.
The personification of virginity, known as ‘Parthenia’, is utilized to create a poignant and dramatic portrayal of the women’s situation, aiming to elicit sympathy from the reader. In Ancient Greece, virginity was seen as momentary and fleeting, as girls would lose it as young as nine years old. This aspect highlights the profound sense of loss experienced by these women, who can no longer wait for their preferred time to lose their virginity, if they ever had one.
Furthermore, the way in which one loses their virginity against their will can be connected to other issues related to marriage, which align with the problems stemming from the enforcement of ‘Compulsory Heterosexuality’. Although homosexuality was prevalent in Ancient Greece, it was always concealed. The significance of marriage between men and women was imperative for men, primarily due to social and political factors, while for women it held importance in numerous other significant aspects.
Marriage was originally meant to be detrimental for men, as seen with the creation of Pandora. Zeus intended for her to punish both men and all women to come. Pandora, crafted by Hephaestus under Zeus’s design, was meant to seduce men and hinder their success and vitality in the world. Thus, it is evident that women possess the ultimate control over men, just as Zeus originally intended. According to sources, Pericles highly admired Aspasia for her political wisdom.
However, this perspective on Aspasia contradicts the traditional social structure of Ancient Greece. In Ancient Greece, respectable women typically did not have their own identity and were not even referred to by their own names in public. Instead, they were identified as “wife of…” when mentioned in public. In contrast, Aspasia had the privilege of being identified by her own name, defying societal norms. This raises the question of whether she should be classified as a wife or a prostitute.
The idea of a ‘wife-whore’ dichotomy suggests that in Ancient Greece, women were typically categorized into two roles. One role was as objects of sexual desire, fulfilling men’s lustful desires. The other role was as reproductive beings, serving the purpose of bearing heirs for their families. Aspasia, however, seems to defy this categorization, appearing as a woman of respectable status or hetaira. This suggests that certain rights she possesses would not be possible otherwise. It is argued that women did have some involvement in Athenian citizenship through participation in religious cult activities.
There has been a debate about whether or not Aspasia, due to her unconventional involvement with society, was truly a priestess. On the contrary, Kennedy argued that women in ancient times were defined by the men in their lives. In relation to Aspasia’s status as a woman, it is proposed that it was Pericles’ influence on her that shaped how she was perceived. This made her something special and different from the typical ancient woman as seen by the ancient Greek world. Yet, the definitive definition of what constitutes a woman in the original sense remains undecided.
Second wave feminists have long aimed to reclaim the lives of women. However, the categorization of women based on their status by scholars has made this task problematic. When scholars categorize women by their status and their relationships with men, they overlook the true essence of women. Looking at the amazons is one way to form an original perception of women because they challenged the patriarchal society. However, it is the patriarchal society that has shaped the amazons into who they are.
Moreover, scholars of classical studies find it difficult to determine Aspasia’s status as a woman in society. However, considering her evident elegance as a woman and her involvement with prostitutes, she can be seen as a combination of both a Hetaira and a respectable woman, or possibly neither. Therefore, Pericles’ portrayal of Aspasia’s political wisdom can be considered reliable, which could have made her highly respected among sources.
Gender and sexuality have long been a subject of debate among scholars in classical studies. The Dover-Foucault model sheds light on the acceptability of Greek male same-sex relationships. The model points out that even Zeus, the revered deity, was in love with Ganymede, a remarkably beautiful boy who was almost divine in appearance. This suggests that if Zeus himself engaged in sexual relationships with a boy, then it must be deemed acceptable for other males as well.
However, female same-sex relationships were not accepted in ancient Greece due to the potential loss of power, lust, politics, and social security that they posed for men. This can be seen in the inevitable end of a female same-sex relationship described in Johnson and Ryan’s book (96). The fragments of Sappho’s works also reveal her love for a girl named Atthis when they were both children.
The fragments depict Atthis being taken away from Sappho against her wishes, possibly to be forcibly married to a man. This concept is referred to as ‘compulsory heterosexuality’. Sappho, like others, experienced situations where she formed romantic relationships with women but ultimately lost them to forced marriages. This helps explain the lack of evidence for female same-sex relationships.
Sappho’s works depict the constraints on female same-sex relationships and how they would be terminated if a man sought marriage. This evokes sympathy as it exposes the injustice of allowing men to engage in same-sex relationships even while married, while women must sacrifice their own happiness due to their subordinate status. However, scholars like Foucault argue that desire and sexuality were culturally shaped by Greek institutions.
Ancient Greek beliefs linked an individual’s social status to their sexual behavior. Men of high social standing had the freedom to engage in sexual activities with anyone they wished, while this privilege was restricted for other men. Similarly, women in positions of power sometimes participated in same-sex encounters if given the opportunity, but these relationships were concealed because women did not have the same rights as men regarding homosexual relationships.
Involvement in an intimate profession like training female prostitutes, as Aspasia does, can create lust for those of the opposite sex. Sappho, a female poet mentioned earlier, offers intriguing insight into relationships between women and shares her own experiences. Born on the island of Lesbos, Sappho gained significant fame in ancient times as the revered ’10th Muse’ of the seventh century BC.
Sappho’s works, which encompass an unbiased perspective on the cultural, social, and political aspects of Ancient Greece, have gained her renown. Nonetheless, the limited knowledge about Sappho gives rise to much debate among classical studies scholars regarding her gender. Male authors predominantly published accounts of ancient Greek history, emphasizing the evident male dominance in their works.
Some sources, including Wightllich, characterize Sappho as a school mistress or priestess of Apollo. This interpretation stems from the lack of information available about Sappho, represented metaphorically as a ‘blank page’. Only a small portion of Sappho’s works have survived. It is not the quality of her ability that led to the preservation of ‘Poem 1’, but rather sheer luck. Many of her poems explore themes of love between girls, including homoerotic poetry and same-sex relationships. Some of her hymns also have homoerotic undertones. Sappho’s personal life, particularly her family life, remains largely mysterious.
Despite limited knowledge about Sappho, both modern scholars and the ancient Greeks have recognized her references to her family, which include her brother, father, and husband. Although there were several biographies of Sappho in ancient times, they were written much later than during the Archaic Greece period. These biographies presented conflicting information about Sappho, suggesting that even the ancient Greeks had limited knowledge about her. However, it has been established that Sappho had romantic feelings for men, particularly for a man named Phaon.
Despite being a renowned lesbian, Sappho developed strong feelings for a man who ultimately rejected her. This rejection reportedly led to her tragic suicide by leaping off a cliff. The significance of this event lies in the fact that Sappho, despite her known works and the prevailing perception of her as a lesbian, did experience sexual desire for men. Thus, our modern understanding of Sappho as a lesbian differs from how she was perceived by the ancient Greeks. Historical sources indicate that Sappho had a group of companions, all of whom were lesbians.
Sappho was part of a circle of women who were sexually involved with each other. This included Sappho herself, as well as Atthis. Atthis left Sappho when she was young, presumably to get married. It is possible that Sappho’s involvement in same-sex relationships was accepted because she was part of the Elite from Lesbos. Being an aristocrat, it is likely that she had the freedom to choose female lovers if she so desired.
In ancient Greece, same-sex relationships were mainly limited to the upper class, particularly among men, highlighting the importance of gender and sexuality in daily life. Unfortunately, women held the lowest status in society and lacked rights and independence. Men had complete power over all aspects of life, including their own lives as well as those of women. At the top of Greek society’s hierarchy, men ruled their domains and exerted control over every aspect within them.
Despite the perception of male dominance in ancient Greece, the essay argues that women held significant power. This is demonstrated in the divine realm where Zeus, who appears all-powerful and wise, can be easily influenced by his supposedly weaker wife. In addition, men exerted control through marriage—a institution where women had no say. However, some women embraced their role in marriage as it was believed to be their ultimate purpose in life according to Hera.
Once again, this demonstrates the cunning nature of women in order to achieve their desired goals. Aspasia, being both the wife of Pericles and a prostitute, epitomized female control and shattered the foundations of patriarchal society. This highlights the potential control and power that women could have over men if they possessed more courage. Same-sex relationships in ancient Greece further exemplified the societal imbalance within Greek society.
The text suggests that women had to conceal their lesbian identity and give up previous lovers due to societal expectations of heterosexuality, indicating the control men held over women. However, Sappho, with her aristocratic background and cleverness, provided a way for female same-sex relationships to thrive. Nevertheless, relying on Sappho’s sources may be unreliable due to the limited information available. Ultimately, gender and sexuality in ancient Greece symbolize an ongoing power struggle between men and women.
