Born on July 4, 2010 in Philadelphia, Meyer R. Scholnick, also known as Robert King Merton, came from a Jewish family from Russia who immigrated to the United States. During his time in High School, Merton took advantage of the nearby cultural and educational venues, which greatly influenced his theory of social structure. In the field of criminology and criminal justice, Merton’s concepts such as anomie, strain, manifest and latent functions, self-fulfilling prophecy, deviant behavior, and the theory of reference groups have been widely employed. Merton’s theories primarily focus on understanding deviant cultures. This essay aims to evaluate some of Merton’s theories, their contributions to criminology, criticisms they have faced, and their applicability in modern times.
Merton made significant contributions to the field of criminology.
Merton’s essay “Social Structure and Anomie” (1938) challenged prevailing biological theories by asserting that crime arises from societal conditions rather than inherent traits. Building on Emile Durkheim’s concept of anomie as a state of normlessness and isolation leading to deviant behavior or suicide, Merton expanded on this idea by defining anomie as a breakdown in cultural norms and goals, resulting in a limited capacity for group members to act accordingly. He also redefined “The American Dream” as not just an aspiration for material wealth, but one rooted in personal value and social status. Merton’s theory emerged from his own experience living amidst the belief that hard work and entrepreneurship could lead to unlimited rewards and social mobility, particularly in overcoming childhood poverty.According to American society, failure is viewed as a personal weakness rather than a social one. This belief leads to feelings of guilt and overwhelming pressure for individuals who do not have equal access to legitimate means of achieving their goals. Success is typically achieved through legitimate means such as education, hard work, and honesty. However, in certain cases, individuals may resort to illegitimate means that violate social norms. Merton noted that American culture creates conflicting demands, where ambition can promote deviant behavior. To address the challenge of cultural goals, Merton identified five different ways individuals can adapt based on their commitment and the availability of institutionalized means. These adaptations are best described in the table provided below (Fig.13) on the Typology of Modes of Individual Adaptation.
Culture Goals
Institutionalized Means
Conformity
+
+
Innovation
+
–
Ritualism
–
+
Retreatism
–
–
Rebellion
±
±
Fig. 1
“+ ” = Accept
“- ” = Reject
According to Merton, conformity is the most common adaptation in society due to its stability. He argued that societies function depend on the majority of individuals adopting a conformist approach, which he observed as a prevalent response among Americans and linked to their average crime rate. He defined a conformist as someone who accepts culturally prescribed goals and the means to achieve them. However, some may perceive Merton’s perspective as outdated in modern criminology, as ongoing research has revealed that crimes are committed by a larger segment of the population, contrary to what is depicted in crime statistics.
Merton’s first adaptation is called Innovation. It refers to a group of individuals in a society who recognize and accept the cultural goals set by society but reject the legitimate methods of achieving those goals. When individuals believe that achieving success is more important than following the prescribed means, they experience strain, which leads to “Innovation.” Deviance arises when innovators choose to pursue the culturally approved goals through illegitimate means.
Ritualism is an adaptation in which individuals excessively focus on the means of attaining material wealth, known as “the end.” According to Merton, ritualism is prevalent among the middle class, who have limited opportunities to obtain socially constructed goals. These individuals are afraid to jeopardize what they already possess by resorting to innovation. As a result, they renounce their goal of success, which is viewed as deviant behavior.
Merton’s explanation of retreatism as an adaptation involves individuals who reject both the ultimate goal and the means to achieve it, driven by their own conscience or internal pressure. Retreatists are categorized by Merton as psychotics, vagrants, psychoneurotic, pariahs, and addicts. While they may exist within society, they choose not to actively participate in it. The crimes committed by retreatists often stem from a desire for self-preservation.
Rebellions, like retreatism, involve nonconformity and are not generally accepted by society. However, rebellions differ in that they replace traditional means with new methods symbolized by the ± sign in Fig 1. Rebellions may seek to achieve their objectives through unconventional religious organizations or political revolutions.
In 1948, Merton wrote an essay discussing the differences between manifest and latent functions. He defined manifest functions as objective consequences that are intended and recognized by participants in the system. In contrast, latent functions are those which are neither intended nor recognized.
For example, the manifest function of transportation is its intended purpose of getting people from one place to another. However, it also has a latent function of serving as a status symbol, as the fancier the car, the higher one’s social status.
Merton argued that crime also has functions in society, whether intended or not. One manifest function of crime is establishing societal norms by defining what is considered wrong or right. On the other hand, the latent function of crime is providing employment for the criminal justice system.
Merton’s 1957 essay introduced the theory of self-fulfilling prophecy. This theory explains how a false definition of a situation can lead to behaviors that make the original false perception become true. For example, if someone consistently receives negative comments from respected individuals, they may begin to conform to those perceptions and exhibit deviant behavior. Merton dedicated a significant amount of time to understanding deviant behavior and its connection to social problems. He categorized deviant behavior into two classes in his book, Social Theory and Social Structure. Nonconforming behavior refers to individuals who challenge the legitimacy of social norms. Aberrant behavior, on the other hand, describes individuals who acknowledge the legitimacy of norms but still violate them.
Critiques
Travis Hirschi, drawing ideas from Merton’s anomie theory, criticized Merton’s lack of explanation for conformity. Merton’s theory only explains why some people commit crimes, but it doesn’t explain why others choose to conform to society. Merton’s foundation is based on the belief that people commit crimes because they desire cultural goals and resort to illegitimate means when those goals are not easily attainable. In contrast, Hirschi focuses on explaining why people conform to society. He argues that individuals become less reliant on groups as those groups weaken, relying only on themselves and their own self-interests for rules of conduct. Following in Durkheim’s footsteps, Hirschi emphasizes the importance of an individual’s attachment to a group in influencing their behavior within normative expectations. He posits that the level of important relationships a person has with others will impact their deviation from societal norms, forming the underlying assumption of Hirschi’s Bond (Control) theory.According to Hirschi, conformity is influenced by a connection to four elements in conventional society. As this connection weakens, the likelihood of deviant behavior increases. In other words, the strength of these bonds determines an individual’s involvement in delinquency.
Cloward criticized Merton’s anomie theory for neglecting to consider the availability of illegal alternatives in certain situations. He argued that a city with a high presence of drugs provides more opportunities for individuals to engage in criminal behavior compared to a drug-free rural area. Additionally, Cloward and Ohlin’s Differential Opportunity theory states that access to conventional means varies depending on social class, with some individuals enjoying advantages denied to others. They further argued that variations in exposure to values, knowledge, and skills necessary for upward mobility also lead to socially structured differences in the availability of illegitimate means. In simpler terms, their theory suggests that both legal and illegal means compete equally as opportunities for achieving goals, including within criminal activities.
In their journal, Parnaby and Sacco expressed the belief that Merton’s original thesis can be applied to explain the relationship between deviant behavior and prevailing cultural values of fame and celebrity. They further argued that the adaptations proposed by Merton are essentially deviant forms that arise as a result of the conflict between cultural and opportunity structures.
Conclusion
In summary, Merton’s theory of anomie suggests that a lack of balance between socially accepted means and cultural goals can lead to the de-institutionalization of legitimate means. However, Merton also argues that societal barriers resulting from the socio-economic structure can impede individuals from achieving society’s cultural goals, causing strain and pressure that may result in deviant behavior. Merton’s theory has influenced the development of other theories such as Hirschi’s Bond (Control) and Cloward and Ohlin’s Differential Opportunity theory, which incorporate his concepts of anomie into their own work. Even after his death, Merton’s contributions to criminology will continue to serve as a foundation for future developments and theories.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Merton, Robert K (1949). Social Theory And Social Structure. Illinois: The Free Press of Glencoe. p. 1.
The book “Continuities in social research: studies in the scope and method of ‘The American soldier'” was published by Merton, Robert K., and Lazarsfeld, Paul F. in 1950. This is the 3rd edition of the book and it was published by Glencoe: Free Press.
Merton and Nisbet (1966) published a book titled “Contemporary Social Problems: An Introduction to the Sociology of Deviant Behavior and Social Disorganization.” The book is the second edition and was published in New York by Harcourt, Brace & World.
Articles
Cloward and Ohlin (1960) published a book called “Delinquency and Opportunity” in New York, which was released by Free Press.
The source of the text is a book titled “A Control Theory of Delinquency” by Hirsci, Travis. It was published in 1969 as part of a book called “Causes of Delinquency” by Transaction Publishers.
Hirsci, Travis. (1969). A Control Theory of Delinquency. Causes of Delinquency. Transaction Publishers.
Merton, Robert K. (1938). “Social Structure and Anomie”. American Sociological Review 3
Merton, Robert K. (1957). Social Theory and Social Structure. New York: Free Press.
Merton, Robert K. (1949). Social Theory & Social Structure. 1st edition. Illinois: The Free Press of Glencoe.
Pfohl, S. (1994). Images of Deviance and Social Control. (2nd ed.) New York: Mcgraw Hill.
Hirsci, Travis. (1969). A Control Theory of Delinquency. Causes of Delinquency. Transaction Publishers.
Hirsci, Travis. (1969). A Control Theory of Delinquency. Causes of Delinquency. Transaction Publishers.
Journals
Parnaby, Patrick F. and Sacco, Vincent F. (2004) ‘fame and strain: the contributions of Mertonian deviance theory to an understanding of the relationship between celebrity and deviant behavior’, Deviant Behavior. Paul Helm (1971) The Philosophical Quarterly Vol. 21, No. 82 (Jan., 1971)
