The functions of the frontal lobe, containing the prefrontal cortex, are: reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving (Mann, p. 54). The limbic system, as known as the “emotional brain”, is located in the middle of the brain, consisting of the: amygdala, hippocampus, septum, and cingulate gyrus; which are all involved with emotional and motivational processing (Cohen, p. 103). The amygdala is an early responder to emotional stimuli or could be described as a responder to emotionally significant signals from the environment (Cohen, p. 103). Emotions have three components: cognitions, feelings, and actions (Kalat, p. 356).
Cognition means thought, and that we use cognition to imagine the potential outcome(s) of an action. This allows one to think [of the action] before we act [result in outcome or consequence]. (Cohen, p. 145). Emotions are complex, that can expand past our physical surroundings. Some people have emotional responses to situations that they are not directly involved with, such as third world countries and starvation, global warmings, mass shooting from other states, etc. Cognitive thinking effects one’s feelings, and both cognition and feeling could affect a person’s actions (Cohen, p. 152). The brain is an organ that does not fully finish developing until a person’s mid-twenties, with the prefrontal cortex being the last area of the brain to fully develop.
The prefrontal cortex is associated with for regulating emotions, decision making, and controlling impulses. During the adolescent phase, emotions are intensified due to increase of hormones (estrogen or testosterone), changes in brain function, and psychological reaction to physical, cognitive, and social changes that contribute to emotional upheaval (Cohen, p. 213). This could be why a lot of the adolescent people make impulsive decisions, without thinking of the possible outcomes based on their actions. During this phase, the amygdala is more responsive to emotional events than at any other time in life (Cohen, p. 213).
Middle-aged adults tend to be calmer and less impulsive than adolescents. Middle-aged adults often feel less stress and have a greater understanding of the world, that allows them to think with perspective; thus, can reduce emotional impulsiveness (Cohen, p. 230). This difference could be due to the brain growth and development between the two age groups. The core emotions are: fear, disgust, surprise, happiness and sadness. These core emotions are unlearned human responses that can be recognized, regardless of linguistic or cultural differences. There are more facial expressions beyond the core, such as: embarrassment, and guilt (Cohen, p. 147). Antonio Damasio stated the difference between emotion, the body’s physiological response, and feeling, conscious experience of emotion; and, the ability to recognize and label emotion is something that develops with age, and is, to an extent, dependent on appropriate social feedback (Cohen, p. 147).
Recognizing and labeling emotions is important when in social settings and engaging in conversations with others. Only seven percent of a conversation are verbal, leaving ninety-three percent of a conversation as non-verbal (body language, including facial expressions, and tone of voice). History and theories of emotion. For years, emotions were often perceived sinful, with the belief that experiences of emotions were based on self-indulgences that would drive a person into sinful actions. Descartes, the founding father of modern philosophy, created the idea that human sensations and emotions interrupted rational thinking and judgement (MacDonald, par. 3). This theory is a good application to Mr. Spock from the movie, Star Trek.
Spock was raised to suppress his emotions and base his actions solely on logic; so, his emotions would not cloud his judgment and remove himself from getting personal invested or involved. In 1855, Herbert Spencer expressed two principles of emotions. The first principle argues that emotion is similar to cognition, even though people may believe otherwise. Spencer wrote, “Feelings are not, scientifically considered, divisible from other forms of consciousness” and added “Memory, Reason, and Feeling, are different sides of the same psychical phenomena”. Emotion and cognition cannot be absolutely free from each other (Reconstructing the Past: A Century of Ideas About Emotion in Psychology, 2009). The second principle states that emotion and cognition stem from the same root; meaning, that both come from the same source or same cause (Reconstructing the Past: A Century of Ideas About Emotion in Psychology, 2009).
William James believed that emotions were mental events that triggered physical changes in the body. James wrote, “My thesis on the contrary is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur IS the emotion” (Reconstructing the Past: A Century of Ideas About Emotion in Psychology, 2009). The two-factor theory is one of the most popular theories, which attempts to account for what happens when one experiences emotion. Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer’s two-factor theory, also known as Schachter-Singer theory) explains that experiences of emotions are based on two origins: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling (Mann, p. 102). To experience emotion, we first experience physiological arousal, then try to label our feelings, and decide what they mean (Event → Arousal → Reasoning → Emotion) (Two-Factor Theory of Emotion, par. 1).
Research and applications of emotions. There are EEG studies that suggest the left frontal lobe is more active when one wants to approach something pleasant and could also promote good feelings and dampen bad feelings. The EEG studies also suggest the right lobe is more associated with wanting to withdraw from something that is considered unpleasant (Funder, 2013). There are research studies that try to connect one’s behaviors and emotions with the brain; especially in patients with brain damage or with tumors. Charles Whitman was born in 1941, who was described as a social person, participating in various activities while in school, and who had shown intellectual promise since his was child; with having IQ score of 138. After Whitman’s high school graduation, he had joined the Marines.
Shortly after he enlisted, Whitman had courted and married Kathy Leissner. Whitman started having chronic headaches in 1965, with also having violent thoughts, fantasies, and anger outbursts. In order to control his violent thoughts and outbursts, Whitman had bought a journal and wrote himself notes of encouragement; however, this did not work. In 1966, Whitman had seen multiple doctors for his headaches, and wanted to talk with them about his violent thoughts and impulses. Whitman was referred to a physiatrist, whom he had confided in about his thoughts and fantasies; mentioning one fantasy in particular about wanting to climb the university tower and shoot randomly at people.
The psychiatrist deemed Whitman non-threatening and had offered a follow-up appointment in the next week; but, Whitman did not return. Whitman had given into his thoughts, murdered both his wife and mother in one night, and the next day, had climbed up to the university tower and shot many people; until he was shot and killed by the law enforcement. Whitman had left a note, “…After my death, I wish that an autopsy would be performed on me to see if there is any visible physical disorder.” The autopsy discovered that Whitman had a malignant tumor in the right hemisphere of the brain, in the basal ganglia next to the amygdala (Funder, p. 260).
There are theories that the tumor had played an effect on Whitman’s emotions and behavior; some believe that there is no correlation between the two. In 1848, there was a dynamite explosion that had sent a three-foot iron rod through Phineas Gage’s left cheek, into the frontal lobes of his brain, and out through the top of his head. Gage survived to live another fifteen years. Gage had retained some mental functions, but his emotional life had flattened; no longer feeling great happiness or great sadness. His behavior had changed after this incident, became: fitful, irreverent, and impatient of restraint or advice (Funder, pp. 261-262, 291). Brain damage and tumors are not the only causes of difference in behavior and emotion. Deanna Benjamin-Cole fell into a numbing depression, at thirty-six years old. It became difficult for Deanna to function at work and she start to withdraw from her husband and three children.
For the next four years, Deanna spent most of her time at a mental hospital, where she felt it was a safe place to be; believing she would not feel safe elsewhere. All possible medical and therapeutic treatment, including eighty electroshock treatments, had failed to treat her depression (McPhee, 2008). Dr. Helen MayBerg made a discovery, with aid of brain imaging, that there is a small part of the brain, known as Area 25, that showed a decrease in activity, from a previously elevated state, from patients who were previously treated for depression, and increased activity in the frontal cortex; as if the two were linked. Dr. MayBerg conducted a study, using healthy volunteers, and had asked the volunteers to ponder sad thoughts. The results of the study concluded that Area 25 became over active, while the frontal cortex quieted down. Dr. MayBerg decided to surgically target Area 25, with hopes of resetting the brain’s rhythm, known as deep brain stimulation (McPhee, 2008). Deanna underwent this operation, which required the doctors to thread two electrodes into her brain, to stimulate Area 25 with a steady low dose of electricity from a pulse generator. The results were successful, with Deanna stating that this method has helped her fight through her depression, and she lives with a pulse generator in her chest, to stimulate and help function her brain (McPhee, 2008).
