The Enlightenment ideas greatly affected the French Revolution and the 1789 reforms. John Locke’s “Two Treatises on Government” (1690), The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789), and Arthur Young’s “Travels in France during the Years 1787, 1788, 1789” were crucial influences on these changes. Preceding the revolution, referred to as the ancient regime, society was divided into three estates. The first estate comprised clergy members who held religious roles like bishops, monks, and nuns.
The Second Estate of France, consisting of the noble class, held considerable power and influence over the people, which earned them dislike from many individuals, particularly those belonging to the third estate. Catholicism served as the official state religion in France, and the Church wielded substantial sway over the population. As the wealthiest and most esteemed group, the Second Estate was the most privileged and influential estate in France.
Despite their prestigious careers in France, the Second Estate enjoyed a range of privileges. These included access to special courts for trials, exemption from military duty, and exemption from the onerous taxes on salt (known as gabelle) and forced labor for road maintenance (known as corvée). Additionally, the Second Estate received various feudal dues from workers and held exclusive rights to hunting and fishing. They also held monopolistic control over certain commodities and services in many areas.
The third estate was made up of the bourgeoisie, peasantry, urban workers, and Sans-cullottes. It was a distinct group separate from the nobility and clergy. This group comprised approximately 85% of the population and had the greatest variety in terms of wealth and social standing. It included the middle class, skilled workers, and individuals without social status.
In this passage from Author Young’s ‘Travels in France during the years 1787, 1788 and 1789,’ we observe the influence of the Enlightenment on French society prior to and following the ancien régime. During a visit to Pass Payrac, a town in Southern France, we come across many beggars, an occurrence that was not seen before. The rural girls and women are without shoes or stockings, while even the ploughmen don’t have wooden shoes (sabots) or visible feet beneath their stockings.
Addressing poverty is crucial for a nation’s overall prosperity because the consumption of goods and services by the poor holds more importance than that of the wealthy. The circulation and consumption of goods and services are vital for a nation’s wealth, so it is essential to tackle the issue of poor individuals refraining from using leather and wool products, which poses a significant problem. This situation reminded me of Ireland’s suffering. Moreover, there was evident inequality among the three Estates in terms of rights. The Enlightenment movement played a key role in bringing about substantial changes in French people’s thoughts and beliefs.
The idea of equality among the French population instilled hope in the Third Estate, leading to the emergence of revolutionaries. Numerous issues arose within French society due to the estates. The first estate experienced significant disparities in wealth, particularly between the upper clergy and ordinary priests. Additionally, there was discontent towards the church regarding tithes, which were annual charges paid by landowners, as well as the don gratuit, a supposedly ‘free gift’ given to the monarchy.
During this time, the French society faced various challenges. The nobility of the Second Estate resented each other for not paying direct taxes, and the tenants were unhappy with the feudal rights imposed on them. On the other hand, the Third Estate had limited privileges and was frustrated by the bourgeoisie’s lack of political influence under absolutism. They also carried most of the tax burden. In 1690, John Locke, an influential English philosopher revered as the father of Classical Liberalism, discussed in his work “Two Treatises on Government” about the state of nature.
To grasp the true nature and source of political power, it is crucial to recognize that every individual has innate freedom to govern their actions and possessions as they see fit, while still abiding by the laws of Nature. They do not require permission or reliance on others’ desires (… ) Thus, we conclude that all individuals are equal, underscoring the significance of acknowledging this equality throughout all social classes for a thorough understanding of political power.
In this essay, the concept of creating Estates within a nation will be examined as it contradicts natural laws and human nature. The exploration of this idea is closely linked to individual rights and will also involve an analysis of the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen. The Enlightenment, which occurred in 18th Century Europe, witnessed intellectuals challenging the prevailing ideas and perspectives of that era.
The Catholic Church faced a challenge to its traditional values as it analyzed society using reason and rational thinking instead of superstition and tradition. This movement also reached France, where the intellectuals were referred to as Philosophes. The Philosophes aimed to apply rational analysis to various aspects of society, such as the Church, politics, and royal activities. They rejected tradition and revelation, viewing them as part of the old ancien régime.
The philosophers supported Liberty, freedom of speech, press, trade, and freedom from arbitrary arrest. They questioned anything that lacked reasoning and exerted immense pressure on the Church. The philosophers denounced the Church for its wealth, intolerance, and corruption. Despite their criticism of various aspects of the old regime, they were not revolutionaries as they did not fundamentally oppose it. Nevertheless, they significantly influenced the eruption of the Revolution.
Their ideals and ideas challenged the foundations of the ancien régime, particularly the Church and the monarchy’s claim to divine authority. While their writings were not inherently revolutionary, they greatly influenced future revolutionaries. The four reforms implemented in 1789 marked the onset of the revolution. These reforms included the abolition of various taxation systems and the establishment of rights for all men. Nonetheless, before these reforms were enacted, there was widespread panic known as the Great Fear.
The social crisis in France worsened due to the rising price of bread. King Louis XVI gathered troops near Paris in June, causing concerns that he would take action against the National Assembly. In response, the citizens of Paris created a National Guard and stormed the Bastille. Concurrently, a sense of panic known as the Great Fear spread throughout the countryside, leading peasants to attack the homes of their noble landlords and burn official records. To appease the people after this tumultuous period, The August Decrees, implemented on the night of 4th August 1789, aimed to bring about reforms and restore calm.
The August Decrees were a reform that eliminated the feudal system and personal services for the upper Estates without compensation, including serfdom and the corvée. Champart and lods et ventes, considered as a form of property right, were intended to be abolished but would instead be redeemed by the peasants. As a result, the reforms were not well received in rural areas due to their limited scope. The proposed changes became legally binding between August 5th and 11th.
In conclusion, the August Decrees abolished various changes, including tithes payable to the Church, venality, financial and tax privileges relating to land and persons, taxation variety between citizens, and special privileges. Additionally, all citizens, regardless of birth, became eligible for all offices. The Enlightenment played a significant role in influencing the August Decrees as it prompted the people of France to protest and demand reform. It is undeniable that reform would have eventually occurred, but without the Enlightenment, it would not have happened at such a rapid pace.
The second reform, referred to as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens, aimed to support the principles outlined in this declaration while condemning the practices of the previous regime. Its objective was also to delineate the entitlements of citizens. This demand was included in the cahiers of all three orders.
The Declaration underscored various key points: it asserted that all men are inherently equal and free when it comes to their rights; it acknowledged certain fundamental rights for individuals such as liberty, property, security, and resistance against oppression; it stressed that power resides with the people; it ensured freedom of worship and expression; it advocated for taxation based on an individual’s means; and it affirmed individuals’ right to own property.
In the 19th century, liberals in Europe were greatly inspired by the Declaration of Independence. John Locke, who is considered the father of Classical Liberalism, wrote in his book “Two Treatises on Government” that if lawmakers try to seize people’s property or subject them to arbitrary power and enslavement, they are essentially starting a conflict against the people. In such situations, individuals have no further obligations and can rely on God’s protection from force and violence. They have the right to regain their freedom and establish a new governing body for their own safety and security. This is why they form and maintain a society.
During the ancien régime in France, the Church held power and imposed numerous laws dictating acceptable behavior. Historian George Rudé argued that the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen marked the downfall of this outdated system and served as a precursor to progressive legislation. This demonstrates the significant impact of the Enlightenment on the drafting of the declaration.
The Enlightenment greatly influenced the reform demonstrated in The Declaration. It encompasses all of the Enlightenment ideals and serves as a valuable resource for understanding how governance transformed and the impact of Enlightenment on society. The following excerpt is directly taken from The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizens, 1789, where the National Assembly acknowledges and proclaims the rights of man and citizen in the presence and under guidance of the Supreme Being.
Men have inherent freedom and equality in their rights, but social inequalities are only acceptable if they contribute to a common objective. The main goal of any political group is to protect the fundamental and indisputable rights of all individuals, including freedom, property, security, and the ability to resist tyranny. The nation has supreme authority, and no person or entity can wield power without explicit consent from the nation.
The concept of freedom includes the liberty to participate in any activity that does not cause harm to others. Therefore, individuals should exercise their inherent rights without violating the ability of others to also enjoy these same rights. Legal regulations are responsible for establishing boundaries and restrictions on these rights. It is the responsibility of the law to prohibit actions that are detrimental to society. Anything that is not explicitly prohibited by the law should not be impeded, and individuals should not be compelled to engage in activities that are not mandated by law. Ultimately, the law represents the collective desire of society.
The right to engage in the creation of society is ensured for every citizen, whether directly or by means of their representatives. It is imperative that this right be equally accessible to all individuals, regardless of how they are treated by the system. The principle of equality guarantees that every citizen has an equal chance to attain public recognition, positions, and employment solely based on their abilities and virtues. During the Enlightenment movement in the 18th century, there was a significant focus on critically examining and questioning disparities, extremism, and unfairness. Additionally, this movement made substantial intellectual contributions to the revolutionary aspirations prevalent at that time.
The Enlightenment had a significant impact, as evidenced by specific rights that demonstrate its influence. For example, the fourth right states that liberty entails the ability to do anything that does not harm others. Therefore, the exercise of each individual’s natural rights is only limited by laws that safeguard the same rights for society’s other members. This principle reflects a major ideal of the Enlightenment and serves as a source for various ideas and ideological terms associated with the movement. Additionally, a third reform involved the nationalization of Church land.
The purpose of this reform was to address the state’s debt. After extensive debates in late October and early November, the assembly reached a consensus on November 2, 1789, that all Church property should be made available to the Nation. As a result, Church land was nationalized and the State took on the responsibility of supporting the Clergy and their efforts to assist the impoverished. The sale of Church land greatly contributed to meeting the financial needs of the State.
The reform was influenced by the Enlightenment, which advocated for the separation of religion and government and emphasized the importance of rule founded on logic, facts, and knowledge. In France, the Enlightenment had a significant impact, as the revolutionaries were in opposition to the Church and saw selling its land as a convenient solution to address the nation’s debt. Although the Enlightenment did not directly cause this reform, it facilitated its implementation by the State.
The event referred to as The October Days in 1789, also known as The Women’s March to Versailles, was the fourth reform. This event was a demonstration by women due to the increasing tension caused by the King’s refusal to approve the Assembly’s decrees. On October 5th, women stormed the Hôtel de Ville, which served as the commune’s headquarters, demanding bread. They were determined to march to Versailles to address their grievances with both the King and the Assembly. Approximately 6 to 7 thousand women embarked on a five-hour march, with 20,000 National Guards following them.
The women stormed the Assembly upon arrival and dispatched a delegation to the king, who promptly agreed to supply Paris with grain. Furthermore, he consented to endorse the August Decrees and the Declaration of Rights. This event, which took place in 1789, marked a significant revolution. The driving force behind this occurrence was undoubtedly the ideals of the Enlightenment. The French women were displeased with the high bread prices, and it is conceivable that learning about human rights, while realizing their own rights fell short of ethical standards, naturally incited a response.
If the King had agreed sooner, he could have prevented this reaction. However, the reaction was caused by a combination of Enlightenment ideas, the economic situation, and the corrupt Church. The French Revolution’s primary causes were the international struggle for leadership and Empire, which went beyond the state’s economic resources; the political conflict between the Monarchy and nobility concerning tax reform that led to bankruptcy; and the impact of Enlightenment on political conflicts.
The impact of the Enlightenment on the French Revolution and its reforms in 1789 was significant. It strengthened traditional aristocratic constitutionalism, but also created social tensions between two emerging groups: the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie. Furthermore, King Louis XVI’s ineffective leadership added to overall dissatisfaction. Economic challenges, such as the agrarian crisis of 1788-89 and food shortages, further heightened popular discontent and disturbances. Therefore, it can be argued that revolutionaries during this time period were greatly influenced by the Enlightenment.
Debate surrounds the question of whether the Revolution could have happened without the Enlightenment, considering different factors. However, it is clear that the Enlightenment played a crucial role in raising social awareness in France. The events leading up to the Revolution would not have unfolded as quickly without its impact. Therefore, we can confidently state that the Enlightenment significantly influenced people’s views on government structure and individual rights and morals.
SOURCE: School Workbook:
France in Revolution; FOURTH EDITION; Hodder Education by Dylan Rees.
Given Sources:
SOURCE A
From: John Locke, “Two Treatises on Government”, 1690
[On the state of nature]
To understand political power aright, and derive it from its original, we must consider what estate all men are naturally in, and that is, a state of perfect freedom to order their actions, and dispose of their possessions and persons as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of Nature, without asking leave or depending upon the will of any other man (… )
[Of the beginning of political societies]
According to the text, men are inherently free, equal, and independent. They cannot be forced into political subjugation without their consent. This consent is given when individuals agree to join and unite as a community for the purpose of living comfortably, safely, and peacefully while also protecting their own properties from external threats. When a group forms a community or government with consent, they create a collective political entity where the majority has authority on behalf of all. However, if legislators attempt to confiscate people’s property or subject them to arbitrary power and slavery, they engage in warfare with the people. In such cases, individuals are no longer obligated to obey and have the right to defend themselves using God’s provided refuge against force and violence. Consequently, power reverts back to the people who can regain their original freedom and establish a new legislative body that ensures their safety and security within society.
The National Assembly, with the presence and support of the Supreme Being, recognizes and declares the rights of individuals as stated in The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizens, 1789. These rights include:
1. All individuals are born free and equal in their rights, and this equality should be founded solely on the welfare of society.
2. The purpose of any political organization is to safeguard the fundamental and intrinsic rights of individuals, which include freedom, property, security, and protection against tyranny.
3. Ultimately, authority rests with the nation itself.
The source emphasizes that authority must originate from the nation, as no one can possess authority without this source. It further asserts that freedom entails the ability to engage in actions that do not harm others, and that natural rights ought to be limited solely to enable other members of society to also enjoy their rights. Determining these limitations is within the jurisdiction of the law alone. The law possesses the capability to prohibit actions detrimental to society; however, individuals should generally face no impediments unless expressly prohibited by law. Furthermore, individuals should not be compelled to undertake any action unless mandated by law. The law symbolizes the collective desires of most people, and all citizens possess the right to participate in its formation either directly or through representatives.
Equality under the law is essential, regardless of whether it provides safeguards or consequences. In society, all individuals are regarded as equal and have equitable opportunities for public positions and employment solely based on their abilities, virtues, and talents. The following excerpts from Arthur Young’s “Travels in France during the Years 1787, 1788, 1789” shed light on the excessive and burdensome misconducts related to tax collection.
The kingdom was divided into generalities, with an intendant overseeing each one. These intendants held the full power of the crown, except for military authority. Their main responsibility was handling financial matters. They had the authority to distribute the various taxes, such as taille, capitation, vingtiemes, among different districts, parishes, and individuals as they pleased. They could also exempt or change the tax distribution as they saw fit. Such immense power, which affected everyone and was constantly exercised, often led to situations of absolute tyranny.
It is evident that the friends, acquaintances, and dependents of the intendant, as well as his sub-delegates and their friends, could receive preferential treatment in taxation compared to their unfortunate neighbors (…). However, without needing to consider these specific situations, one can only imagine the distress of the impoverished populace burdened by heavy taxes while the nobility and clergy were exempt. This cruel exacerbation of their suffering was witnessing those who were most capable of paying escape their responsibilities solely because they had the means! (2) Continuing on our journey and passing through Payrac [town in the South of France], we encountered numerous beggars, a sight that we had not encountered previously.
All the country, girls and women, are without shoes or stockings; and the ploughmen at their work have neither sabots nor feet to their stockings. This is a poverty, that strikes at the root of national prosperity; a large consumption among the poor being of more consequence than among the rich: the wealth of a nation lies in its circulation and consumption; and the case of poor people abstaining from the use of manufactures of leather and wool ought to be considered as an evil of the first magnitude. It reminded me of the misery of Ireland.
