The Greeks, who considered themselves the most civilized society in the world, were a self-aware people known for their introspection. In contrast to any other culture in western civilization’s history, they labeled non-Greeks as “barbarians.” Greek civilization originated from the remnants of the ancient Mycenaean and Minoan cultures. Following the decline and eventual collapse of Mycenaean culture in 1100 BCE, there was a period lasting around 200-300 years called a “dark age” in the Aegean Islands. However, by 800 BCE, Greece began to display growth and stability in their government, economy, and culture.
During the Homeric Age, Homer documented the stories of ancient Greek history, including The Iliad and The Odyssey, which are commonly analyzed in academic environments. This era’s civilization laid the groundwork for various aspects of Western cultures, such as art, architecture, music, theater, philosophy, literature, and politics. In the Geometric Period (1000 BCE – 700 BCE), a unique Greek style began to appear prominently in the ornamental features found on vases and ceramics that often depicted funeral processions.
The figures in this artwork are depicted using simple geometric shapes, with triangular torsos and hips. The image portrays a body lying in state, suggesting that this vase may have been used as a grave marker. It is worth noting that there is a greater effort here to convey genuine human emotions. The mourners’ arms are raised overhead, indicating distress. It is not surprising that the Greeks recognized and depicted authentic emotional grief in their art. As a civilization, they were self-aware, and their deities not only had human-like appearances but also displayed human characteristics.
In essence, the gods and humans only differed in terms of omnipotence. The inscription on the Temple of Apollo, “Man is the measure of all things”, speaks volumes about the Greeks. Ancient Greek Culture can be categorized into four distinctive styles/periods. The oldest is the Geometric Period (1000 BCE-700BCE). The funerary krater serves as an example of this style in painting. Additionally, the Man and Centaur sculpture exemplifies the geometric style, portraying a man stabbing a half-man, half-beast centaur.
We classify this statue as geometric due to its date of creation in 750 BCE and the simplistic shape of the subjects. Unlike Egyptian and Near Eastern statues, which are usually closed form, this is a small open form cast statue. Two examples of closed form sculpture can be seen on the left. In these sculptures, the figures do not break or reach out into space. However, in the statue of the man and centaur, they physically reach out to each other, and we are able to physically move in and through the statue. The Greeks were skilled seamen who had encounters and engaged in business with other civilizations and countries.
Greek artists were heavily influenced by the art of the Near East, Asia Minor, and Egypt, resulting in a style known as Orientalizing. This style represented a fusion of Greek aesthetic preferences with Eastern iconography. The city of Corinth, a significant Greek cultural hub and prominent trading center, was where this style first emerged. The olpe depiction, characterized by its broad opening, illustrates the Near East’s fondness for hybrid creatures. Additionally, the use of black and red colors in this piece is a clear Eastern influence. The figure’s intricate details are achieved through incising, or scratching. Furthermore, the neck of the amphora vase exhibits larger and more voluptuous figures.
The Orientalizing vases display geometric patterns, which are similar to those seen in the Geometric style. One section of the vase depicts the tale of Odysseus and his crew battling the Cyclops Polyphemos, with figures resembling Minion Cretes. These figures demonstrate elegance and sophistication. Another part of the vase portrays the narrative of Perseus and Medusa. The ancient Greeks often used their myths and heroes as metaphors, with Medusa and Polyphemos symbolizing primal terror and cannibalism, while Odysseus and Perseus represent the triumph of reason over evil.
During the Archaic Period (600BCE – 480BCE), Athens became the dominant city-state of Greece due to Solon’s influential role. Solon is credited with establishing the judiciary system, popular assembly and council, and introducing a representative government that laid the groundwork for democracy. This era saw remarkable progress in art, with renowned writers Aesop and Sappho making significant contributions to early literature. Greek tragedies and comedies thrived alongside flourishing visual arts.
The status of artist will be elevated to a higher level. There are pieces of art that are actually signed by artist. The ancient Greeks seem to enjoy competitive sports (They are the ones who created the Olympic Games). This love of competition was also applied in the fine arts. Writers and artists would compete with each at festivals but also they would compete for art commissions. Athens would initiate monumental building projects for their city. Probably the earliest example of the archaic style is found on the vases produced at this time. The Greeks adhered to standard vase shapes.
Certain shapes were commonly utilized for specific purposes. While Athens was a prominent hub for pottery production, it was in Corinth where the technique of Black figure vase painting was first developed. In this technique, the artist paints the figures as silhouettes using a slip, which is then fired. The firing process transforms the slip color to black. Afterward, the artist uses a stylus to add details to the figures. Exekias, considered one of the finest 6th-century painters, showcased his mastery in pieces such as Achilles and Penthesilea.
The neck and bottom register of the vase show an Orientalizing influence, while the central scene depicts Exekias studying and replicating the movement of human figures. Unconsciously, Exekias employs design principles to strengthen and enhance the composition. The Greeks were pioneers in capturing emotional expressions on the faces of their subjects. The dramatic narratives portrayed on these vases may have foreshadowed the emergence of Greek theater.
By the mid 6th century BCE, the red figure vase painting technique was developed, which remained popular throughout the archaic period. This style allowed artists to have more control and include more details. This particular piece, Death of Sarpedon, was created by two artists: Euphrinios (painter) and Euxitheos (potter). The painter demonstrated a keen eye for human anatomy, as evident in the detailed figures and the attempt to foreshorten the knee, creating a sense of form on a 2 dimensional surface.
During the archaic period, the Greeks demonstrated their expertise in creating monumental sculptures. These statues, which were of life size, bear the influence of other cultures on the early Greek artwork. The Greeks acquired their carving skills from Egyptian sculptors. An excellent illustration of the Egyptian style in Greek art is the Kouros (meaning young man). It embodies the characteristic features such as the rigid arms, one leg in forward motion, the distinctive heavy eyes, and a subtle smile on the face. However, it is worth noting that the Greek taste prevails as the subject is depicted entirely nude and carved separately from the stone. Remarkably, this is the earliest known example of a freestanding life size statue.
Most kourai (plural spelling) were thought to be grave markers and likely painted. The Peplos Kore (wearing a peplos garment) was the female version of monumental sculpture. Kore always had clothes, but the artist hinted at the figure underneath. The arm may have held flowers or another offering. She also had heavy lined eyes and an “archaic smile” like the Kouros. Recent findings suggest that the Kore might represent Athena, possibly wearing a metal crown and earrings, and painted with colored wax.
The skills of Greek sculptures evolved to create more dynamic and three-dimensional forms of Kouros and Kore. This statue (on the right) was discovered bearing the inscription “Stop and mourn at the tomb of the deceased Kouros, killed by wild Aries in front of the battle line”. This implies that the Kourai originally served as tombstones. Kore from Chois: The garment known as chiton, discovered on Chois, an island near Asia Minor. The more intricate hairstyle and attire provide our lady with a more sophisticated appearance. While statues of men often depicted warriors, athletes, or deities, statues of women solely portrayed deities or other supernatural beings.
Monumental statues were utilized by the Greeks on their temples, including the Dying Warrior positioned at the temple of Aphaia. This particular warrior would have been adorned with bronze armor and was likely painted. It remains uncertain whether this warrior was a friend or foe. Unlike other ancient civilizations, the Greeks typically did not depict their adversaries as feeble or insignificant. The warrior is depicted in the midst of a struggle, exerting effort to remove an arrow lodged in his side. Given that this statue was intended for a temple pediment, unique spatial considerations would need to be taken into account.
However, the problem will be resolved by manipulating the figures, which will also enhance the dramatic portrayal of the event. When it comes to architecture, the emergence of Greek temples can be traced back to ancient sanctuaries and outdoor altars/shrines. As the Greek civilization progresses, their architecture evolves accordingly. The design of Greek temples draws inspiration from the megaron plan found in Mycenaean palaces and the grand architecture of Egypt. The Temple of Apollo, for instance, is classified as Doric style due to its use of columns.
These temples typically included a naos, pronaos, and opisthodomos, as well as a room for offerings dedicated to Apollo. The Temple of Hera I is another example of a Doric-style temple, featuring a single row of Doric columns surrounding a cella or naos. The temple’s elevation arrangement includes decorated friezes, pediment, and entablatures depicting narratives related to the deity. The Greeks positioned their columns on the exterior of their temples, forming a wall known as a peripteral. The squat appearance of the Doric column represents the most practical form among the Greek column orders.
The column orders in Greece were highly valued and considered crucial. Some art historians argue that they are the most significant architectural contribution of the Greeks. Each style represents progress not only in terms of aesthetics but also in engineering. The Treasury of the Siphnians, situated in the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, features caryatids statues with one engaged leg on pedestals. These columns are classified as Ionic order due to their intricately carved capitals. The pediment at the center showcases a winged sphinx, which bears clear influence from the Near East. Additionally, in one corner stands a winged female figure, representing Nike, the goddess of victory.
The pediment features borders adorned with an egg and dart pattern, as well as an egg and leaf pattern. During the Classical Period (480BCE – 325BCE), the Greeks developed a concept of beauty based on three main ideas: humanism, rationalism, and idealism. Humanism emphasized the importance of humans as the standard for everything. Rationalism focused on understanding the true meaning behind forms, while idealism advocated for creating only essential forms. Influential figures like Sophocles, Plato, and Aristotle supported rational thinking, believing that everything has a purpose and follows a deliberate design without any accidental elements.
Artists in Greece during the classical period engaged in both artistic creation and the writing of books on art theory. Their focus was on meticulous observation of nature and the search for universal concepts across various forms. Particularly, Greek artists strove to produce flawless images at this time. However, the classical period also witnessed internal political problems emerging in Greece, ultimately culminating in a war between Sparta and Athens. In spite of Athens’ earlier triumph against the Persians, they were eventually conquered by the Spartans in 404 BCE.
Shortly after, Greece would be united under the rule of Phillip of Macedonia and his son Alexander the Great, leading to the growth of Macedonian power. The death of Alexander marked the end of Greece’s classical period. Greek paintings are primarily known through scenes depicted on vases and mosaic copies of their artwork. During the late 5th century, the white ground painting technique gained popularity, especially for lekythoi, a common vase shape. This technique enabled artists to depict more intricate details and achieve a greater sense of realism. Vase painters were able to utilize a wider range of colors as well.
The vase was fired after being outlined in black on a white painted background, with other colors applied using tempera paint. This type of decoration, which deteriorated quickly, was used solely for votives, funerary or religious ceremonies. Although the image in your text depicts a warrior, most lekythos paintings during the classical period featured women. It was during this time that women started to become more prominent in artwork. In Greek art, it was customary to portray only goddesses and less powerful supernatural beings as women.
During the mid-5th century, there was an increase in the representation of mortal women on graver and funerary markers. One notable example is the Battle of Issos, also known as Alexander confronts Darius III or the Alexander mosaic. This mosaic is a copy of a Greek painting created by a woman named Helen of Egypt. The mosaic was made using small tessarae stones that were pressed into grout or cement, resulting in a durable surface. The artwork depicts the actual battle between Alexander and Darius II of Persia in a dramatic and realistic manner. The artist skillfully employed foreshortening and modeling techniques to create an active composition.
In this battle scene, Alexander and Darius are portrayed as equals. Alexander is depicted coming from the left, while Darius is shown wearing armor and leading the battle. The focus of both men is on each other. Some parts of the mosaic are missing, but the gaps resemble clouds of dust that may have been kicked up during the battle. The Kritios Boy is a significant piece as it marks the transition from the archaic to classical style. During this period, the Greeks drew less inspiration from Near East and Egyptian art and developed their own aesthetic. The Kritios Boy exemplifies this self-awareness, as he no longer displays the archaic smile influenced by Egyptian art and appears more solemn.
The Greeks also developed their own artistic aesthetics and transitioned from stylized to a more realistic appearance. This statue was discovered at the Acropolis site in Athens and is most likely a memorial figure. Although there is some slight idealization, the most notable feature of this piece is that it stands freely in a contrapposto position. Towards the end of the archaic period, marble carving was replaced by hollow casting as the primary method for creating monumental sculptures, allowing for more flexibility in the figures.
During the classical period, a significant development was the increased use of large-scale bronze casting. This specific sculpture, believed to depict either Zeus throwing a thunderbolt or Poseidon throwing a trident, exemplifies the Greeks’ expertise and talent in sculpting. By occupying space and projecting into it, the figure displays lifelike qualities through the tensing of its muscles. Artists would observe athletes during their training sessions for inspiration. The eyes of Poseidon or Zeus would typically be adorned with glass, while silver was used for the eyelashes. Unfortunately, only a limited number of original bronze statues from Greek art have survived, as they were often melted down and repurposed.
This is a Roman copy of a Greek sculpture. It should be noted that many Greek marble statues are actually Roman copies. The recycling of bronze was a practice that lasted for hundreds of years. The artist, Myron, likely originally created this piece in bronze. The figure of Poseidon/Zeus extends outward into space, while the discus thrower also extends outward and then twists and turns back in. Myron’s subject is a naturally looking athlete. It is believed that this sculpture may have been commissioned to commemorate the Olympic Games that began in 776 BCE. Additionally, in 1972, two original Greek bronzes were found at the bottom of the sea.
These astonishingly well-preserved figures, believed to date back to around 450 BCE, mark a transition from the early to mid classical period. Notably, they are slightly larger than life size, indicating that they may have been created to commemorate a significant occasion. The artist’s keen focus on human anatomy is apparent as even the veins on the hands and legs are depicted with precision. The positioning of the warrior’s arms suggests that he was possibly holding a shield along with a sword or spear. Moreover, this figure reflects a growing embodiment of an idealized form and the beginning stages of abstraction.
Polyklietos, an art theorist, aimed to create the ideal proportion of the human figure using mathematics. He developed a canon of proportion that was based on the ratio that the perfect male form is 6-7 heads high. The famous Spear Bearer/Achilles statue is an embodiment of Polyklietos’ theories. He also used mathematics to achieve balance and dynamism in his figures.
The Grave Stele of Hegeso, on the other hand, served as memorials for wealthy families. These stelai, which have been discovered in low relief carvings, depicted scenes of women engaged in their daily lives.
The figure depicted on this grave stele is Hegeso, who is thought to be a wealthy woman. She is shown in a private moment, selecting jewelry from a box given to her by her maid. This scene provides a glimpse into the daily lives of mortal women in Greece. The construction of the Acropolis, also known as the high city, began in 490 BCE. It served as the main focal point for administrative, religious, commercial, and civic activities in Athens. Positioned at the highest point in the city, the Acropolis was built to honor and showcase the civilization and culture of Athens. The Parthenon, which was located on the Acropolis, stood as a symbol of order and rational thinking.
The Parthenon, built as a temple for Athena, the patron goddess of Athens, serves as a prime example of the Greek temple model. It features a Doric order peristyle cella that faces east, while an unconnected space remains open on the west. In terms of the front entrance, an Ionic order colonnade provides a lighter and more slender appearance when viewed from a distance. This visual effect creates a sense of motion due to the building’s narrowing towards the top. Additionally, the figures in the east pediment of the Parthenon are fully sculpted and securely fastened to the cornices and pediment using metal pins.
The issue of space is resolved by positioning the figures in various ways. Male figures, specifically Heracles and Dionysus, as well as female figures Hestia, Aphrodite, and Dione are incorporated. It is likely that the temple had gold and silver inlays throughout, with a 40’ ivory statue of Athena. One of the Doric Metope reliefs portrays a Lapith, an ancient warrior race, engaged in combat with a centaur. The Lapith is depicted thrusting towards the viewer and twisting away from the centaur, almost breaking away from the background. The centaur’s back is dramatically arched.
The Greeks utilized legendary stories as metaphors for the triumph of reason, as seen in the story of the Lapith defeating the Centaur. The statue of Athena, found in the Naos of her temple, depicts her as the goddess of war, wearing armor. The original statue stood about 40 feet tall on a high pedestal and held a statue of Nike in her right hand. The Temple of Athena Nike, measuring 27′ by 19′, is surrounded by a low wall parapet adorned with reliefs depicting Athena and her victories. This structure features Ionic order columns and has a porch on each side known as an amphi phostyle. A blind porch overlooks the city.
The Erechtheion, the second most significant building at the Acropolis, is an odd temple with an asymmetrical plan housing multiple shrines. It is built on the site of the renowned Poseidon and Athena competition. The parapet includes a sculptural relief of Nike, depicted in a delicate garment with attention to detail and a twisting body. Notably, the sacred rock with a trident imprint is enclosed on the north porch, while the famous Porch of Maidens is situated on the southern side of the Erechtheion.
The columns on the porch are strategically placed to achieve a balanced appearance. The leg that is engaged with the porch is covered by the fluted dress. The maidens featured on this structure have a Doric capital and ionic entablature, despite the fact that the columns themselves are considered to be in the Ionic order. As for Attic Grave Steles, they were constructed as memorials for wealthy and prominent individuals. This specific stele exhibits the beginnings of an aesthetic change in art. The facial features of the sculptures become more individualized, bordering on portraiture but still displaying some evidence of idealization. Additionally, this stele seems to show a greater acceptance and appreciation for maturity over youth and beauty.
This is a monumental stele that stands over 5 feet tall. Greek sculpture underwent a shift in style during the late classical period. The Aphrodite of Knidos is significant as it is the first full nude female sculpture. It is actually a combination of two Roman copies. Certain parts, such as the neck, right forearm and hand, feet and legs, were restored in the 17th and 18th century. Note the modest gesture of Aphrodite, suggesting that the figure may be an idealization. She is intended to represent the epitome of high values. The sculpture was placed in an open shrine and meant to be viewed from all angles. Praxiteles made modifications to the canon of proportions that were applied to the female form.
According to legend, Aphrodite supposedly asked Praxiteles when he had seen her naked. Praxiteles worked in Athens from 370-335 BCE, and his sculptures became leaner and taller. The proportions of the body became 8-9 heads tall, creating a more heroic appearance. The faces depicted in his sculptures were more introspective, capturing minor deities in happier and lighter moments. Another renowned sculptor of the late 4th century, Lysippos, was influenced by Praxiteles and claimed to be a self-taught artist who learned from nature. He may have even incorporated Praxiteles’ canon of proportions.
Even though the typical subject matter in Greek art is an athlete engaged in athletic endeavors, this particular artwork deviates from that norm. In this piece, the athlete is not depicted in any athletic activity. Instead, the artist projects himself into the viewers’ space, resulting in a slightly curved spine and an overall tranquil composition. Lysippos, renowned for his monumental sculptures of Zeus, was selected to create a statue of Alexander the Great, which this artwork could potentially be a part of. This sculpture is believed to portray an actual likeness of Alexander the Great rather than a generic representation. The eyes are deep-set, contemplative, and slightly upward-facing.
This also leads viewers to assume that Alexander may have been a benevolent and generous ruler. The Hellenistic Period (480BCE – 325BCE) is defined by Alexander’s death in 323 BCE and the beginning of the Roman Empire. Alexander would unite Greece, conquer Persia, Syria, and Phoenicia, occupy Egypt, establish the Alexandria seaport, and continue to march as far east as India. The death of Alexander in 323 BCE would cause a split of his kingdom (one story is that as Alexander lay dying on his bed, his generals asked him who should succeed him as king, and with his last breath he gasped “The strongest”).
In the early 3rd century, Alexander’s generals divided the empire into three parts: the Ptolomies ruled Egypt, the Antigonids had Macedonia & mainland Greece, and the Seculids controlled Asia Minor, Persia & Mesopotamia. Over the next two centuries, these divided kingdoms came under Roman rule, with Egypt resisting the longest. During the Hellenistic period, the city of Alexandria in Egypt became a renowned center of learning thanks to Alexander’s great library. This library housed over 700,000 papyrus and parchment scrolls, benefiting rulers of ancient civilizations for the next 100-200 years.
The Hellenistic Theatre experienced ongoing expansion and development, serving not only as a form of entertainment but also as a venue for religious communal rituals featuring dance, music, and poetry. The stage was strategically positioned towards a hill, providing a natural formation of seating resembling a stadium. The majority of theatres were constructed during the 4th century and underwent continuous enhancements. An illustrative model of a Greek theatre can be found at Epidauros, characterized by its semi-circle arrangement of tiered seating and the presence of an orchestra performance space. The backdrop and backstage area were comprised of a proskenion, which acted as a partition separating the orchestra from the skene ramp. The seating arrangements were ingeniously created using wedge-shaped elements.
Originally built on a Doric temple, the Temple of the Olympian Zeus had a base foundation measuring 135 ft x 354, but it was not completed until the reign of the Roman emperor Hadrian. Commissioned by Antiochus and designed by Cossutius, it is located at the foot of the Acropolis and is a larger traditional Greek temple. The columns of the temple are a combination of Corinthian capitals and Ionic shafts, giving it an elegant and refined appearance. One fine example of Hellenistic sculpture found here is the Nike of Samothrace, possibly created to commemorate a sea victory or to be placed on the bow of a ship.
However, it is highly probable that the sculpture was placed on a cliff or inside a niche carved into an artificial hillside. The artist employed principles of proportions, posture, and fabric to achieve a striking and overall dramatic impact. Nike’s stance spirals upwards, with her translucent garment emphasizing the curves of her body. The intense and theatrical pose of Nike exemplifies a common trait of Hellenistic art. During this period, artistic preferences shifted from a focus on harmony and equilibrium to more emotionally-charged portraits and events. Aphrodite of Melos, also referred to as Venus de Milo, stands as one of the most renowned sculptures in the art world.
Despite adhering to Praxiteles’ canon of proportion, the Hellenistic sculpture showcases certain deviations. Compared to the Hellenistic Ruler, she appears slightly heavier and rounder. Her body exhibits a more pronounced twist and knee projection, which are characteristic of the Hellenistic period. Scholars engage in ongoing debate regarding the interpretation of her hand gestures; some suggest she may be holding an apple, gazing into a shield of Ares, or simply covering her body with her hands. Nonetheless, the sculpture represents a prime example of classical Hellenistic art style. It is a larger-than-life-size artwork favored by Hellenistic viewers, yet it does demonstrate an abstraction of the human form.
The artist depicts a ruler with exaggerated muscles, while the facial features are more unique and suggest the personality of a ruler who saw himself as divine and omnipotent. The Lacoon sculpture is inspired by the tale of a Trojan priest who attempted to warn the king of Troy about the wooden horse. The Hellenistic era, known for its love of dramatic art, greatly influenced the production of this work. The artist skillfully captures both the emotions and movements of the figures, as well as the stability within a dynamic composition. Hellenistic artists and patrons also embraced and supported a more realistic style in sculpture.
The subject matter of more realistic art often revolved around children and working class people, while the other trend, known as anti classical, depicted anything but gods, heroes, or royal portraiture. For instance, the sleeping Eros represented a child in a state of complete repose. Although Eros is a god, this portrayal of him as a child became synonymous with this deity (known as Cupid in Roman mythology). This bronze sculpture of Eros portrays him with a sweet expression on his sleeping face and a relaxed body. In contrast to this innocent child, there is also an old woman sculpture, which is quite uncommon in Greek art.
The subject depicted in the sculpture is open to interpretation and debate among scholars. Some believe she could be an aging follower of Dionysus, the god of fertility and wine. Questions arise about her state: is she drunk? Is she on her way to or from a worship session? Or is she a market woman who has endured a challenging life? However, one thing is certain – Hellenistic sculptors sought to appeal to individuals across different social classes and capture everyday life in their artwork. The Boxer statue also exemplifies this genre, although it portrays a somewhat idealized figure, his face reveals the physical and emotional pain he has experienced in his profession.
Moving on to Pergamon, which was the Hellenistic capital in Asia Minor, it became a prominent center for artistic activity. The Altar of Zeus, built to commemorate their victory over the Gauls, showcases a more dramatic style known as the Pergamonese style. Placed in an enclosure initially, it now rests on a high podium with an ionic colonnade in an open courtyard. The frieze of the altar features intricate high relief decoration and depicts the traditional battle between gods and titans.
The story of how Pergamon was founded is depicted on the altar’s interior. In 238 BCE, King Attalous defeated the Gauls. As it was forbidden to depict current events on memorials, the Battle of Gods and Giants is used as a metaphor. Similarly to the Athenians building the Parthenon, the Pergamonese wanted to assert their independence and Greek supremacy. However, the figures on the altar’s frieze possibly represent the current uncertainty of the Greek empire. More than 200 figures in various poses appear to be crawling, running, scooting, and flying off the podium’s surface.
On the faces of these figures, a wide range of emotions is depicted, including fear, arrogance, and disbelief. The Greeks’ exceptional observation skills and talent for capturing and expanding on the human form made them highly esteemed and imitated in Western cultures. Despite their admiration for art, the Greeks did not necessarily hold artists in high regard. Although their works are commendable, artists were simply replicating the greatness of the human form rather than creating it. (Chapter Five Web resources: http://www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/) (Athena Agora excavations: http://www.agathe.gr/)
