The English Civil War was a complex and intellectual conflict that occurred between Parliament and the King, the two most powerful entities in England. The tensions between them began when King Charles I disbanded Parliament in 1625 because they refused to provide him with funds for his war against Spain. Led by John Pym, Parliament believed that the King showed favoritism towards Roman Catholics, especially due to his recent marriage to a French Princess who followed this faith. Although Charles briefly reconvened Parliament in 1626, he ultimately dissolved it again as they tried to impeach him.
John Pym, who was unable to be elected to the second Parliament, was elected again in the third Parliament and sought revenge on King Charles. He refused to provide Charles with supplies for his war until certain issues such as forced loans, compulsory billeting, and arbitrary imprisonment were addressed. The King tried to negotiate with Parliament, agreeing that Parliament could no longer be dissolved and had to be summoned regularly. When the Irish rebellion occurred, Pym used it as an opportunity to accuse Charles and his administration of causing the rebellion. Pym argued that those responsible should be dismissed and replaced with individuals approved by Parliament.
Charles attempted to impeach Pym and others, but news of his plans was leaked and the individuals managed to escape. This marked the start of tensions between Parliament and the King. Despite ongoing discussions between the two parties until March of 1641, it became evident that war was unavoidable. In the initial stages of the conflict, the King had the advantage. Nevertheless, after four years of warfare (1642 – 1646), Parliament emerged triumphant. This victory was led by Oliver Cromwell, who assumed leadership following the Battle of Marston Moor.
Despite the lengthy resolution of over eighteen years, the aftermath of the civil war did not bring about any lasting consequences. While there were minor alterations to the system, the English people, Church, and Monarchy returned to their pre-war lives. The war’s violence affected many civilians in England, resulting in thousands of deaths. However, as a conflict, its overall impact was surprisingly limited.
During the war, there were significant casualties. In England alone, 190,000 individuals lost their lives. Across the British Isles as a whole, the death toll reached 868,000 people, representing 11.6% of the population. However, this figure was just a third of the fatalities during the great plague between 1570 and 1670.
Nevertheless, King Charles II and the English populace exhibited remarkable acceptance of these losses and were eager to move forward. Despite losing husbands and fathers, women and children managed to find new spouses or rely on other family members for support.
Despite the inability to bring back those lost during the war, most people wanted to move on with their lives by its end. Surprisingly, many individuals put aside their previous conflicts and started intermarrying despite the divisions caused by the war. Additionally, damaged property was quickly repaired, creating job opportunities for civilians. Despite buildings being destroyed, the relatively less explosive nature of the war allowed for prompt reconstruction.
Cities were sacked, but most were repaired; citizens lost belongings, but they were easily replaced; royalists compelled London residents to cut down trees for fuel by withholding their coal supply, but the trees regenerated. It appeared that civilians were eager to put the wars behind them and restore their lives to how they were before the war. The reintegration of soldiers back into society was a more challenging process for the common people of England, but even that had minimal effects. Merging the soldiers into society as everyday working individuals was a complex task, occurring at two separate times: first, when Cromwell was dissolving the army, and second, when the new Parliament sought to completely disband the army.
The English Civil War had different effects on both sides at different times. This limited the long-term impact of the wars. In order to distance itself from Cromwell, the city of London symbolically erased its history by crossing out relevant pages in its record books. It seemed as though the people of England wanted to forget the Civil War and resume their lives as if it never happened. The Church and religion were also greatly affected during this time period.
Religion played a role in the suspicion within Parliament. John Pym turned against King Charles I because of suspected favoritism towards Roman Catholics. The Irish Rebellion, where the Irish revolted against English Protestants, further fueled Parliament’s belief in a conspiracy against English liberty involving Charles. Parliament, mostly composed of Puritans, fought for their freedom, perceiving a conspiracy against them. In 1645, six days prior to Archbishop Land’s execution, the Book of Common Prayer was replaced with the Presbyterian directory of worship.
The Church of England seemed to be reaching its end during the Civil War, as various new religious movements emerged. The Baptists held the belief that children should not undergo baptism, while the Levellers were more radical, acknowledging the sanctity of private property but advocating for new laws that would protect both the poor and the wealthy. Diggers opposed private land ownership and aimed for the abolition of wage labor. Ranters dismissed the concepts of Heaven, Hell, and sin, asserting that true salvation was only attainable through indulgence in alcohol and sexual activities. With England in a state of anarchy during the war, rebels destroyed churches and cathedrals without any remorse.
Religious festivals, which were opposed by the Puritans, were practiced by Anglicans with the intention of raising funds for the church. In the 1650s, Oliver Cromwell aimed to bring together all Protestants under a single-state church that allowed for external tolerance. However, this concept proved unattainable even before the revolution occurred. Consequently, England ended up having two Protestant nations alongside a Roman Catholic minority. Following the revision of the Monarchy and the conclusion of the Civil War, the Church of England once again became the country’s official established church.
Once again, the church expelled Presbyterian ministers and showed no tolerance for other religions. The Church of England reverted back to its pre-war state, disregarding the rebellion and destruction of alters and cathedrals as if they never happened. Although greatly affected by the Civil War, the Monarchy of England was eventually reinstated to its former position after the conflict was resolved. Shortly following Parliament’s triumph, King Charles I faced charges for personally instigating and waging war against Parliament.
In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, the leader of Parliament, assumed the position of Lord Protector, taking control of England. Shortly after Parliament’s victory, he started disbanding his army and the Rump Parliament. The way Cromwell governed was starting to resemble a monarchy, which he aimed to reform. He made laws without consulting Parliament and disregarded their power in taxing matters.
Although his popularity was diminishing, Cromwell was offered the English throne, but he declined the proposition. After Cromwell’s death in 1658, his son Richard Cromwell tried enthusiastically to implement his father’s policies. However, the Wallingford house party, led by Fleetwood, managed to persuade Richard Cromwell to step down from power. Eventually, the Wallingford house party had no choice but to restore the Rump Parliament, whose main objective was to reinstate the army’s authority. Lambert, who had been a Parliamentary general during the war, was called upon to help dissolve the Rump Parliament. Collaborating with the Royalists and Presbyterians, Lambert and his allies advocated for a new Parliament to be elected.
The downfall of the commonwealth was brought about by a petition sent to the rump by the victorious fighters. This petition aimed to establish a select senate, expedite parliament’s dissolution, and confirm Fleetwood as Commander in Chief and Lambert as second in command. The request sparked a series of events that ultimately led to the commonwealth’s downfall. However, restoring the Monarchy proved to be more complex. Monck, a loyal companion of Cromwell from Scotland, entered England and demanded the Rump Parliament’s recall. Fleetwood and Lambert had no option but to obey Monck’s instructions and reinstate the Rump Parliament. Shortly after its reinstatement, the Rump Parliament turned against Fleetwood and Lambert.
Lambert was captured and Fleetwood, fearing for his safety, allowed the Scottish Army to invade England without any opposition. After gaining control over London, Monck notified the Rump Parliament that the civilians demanded a newly elected parliament. Nevertheless, the Rump Parliament remained reluctant to relinquish power. However, they could not sustain their resistance for much longer and eventually, they were compelled to resign. Following the dissolution of the Rump, Monck clandestinely met with Charles II, the prospective English monarch, and his advisor.
During a meeting, Monck explained certain rules to the King, which he insisted that the King must comply with. However, Charles disagreed with the terms set by Monck and decided to bring a letter to the new Parliament, explaining Monck’s actions. Simultaneously, Lambert managed to escape from his imprisonment and called all of his men together in an attempt to overthrow Monck. Despite Monck’s firm belief that all regiments of Parliament should pledge their unquestioning obedience to him and abide by any decision of Parliament, he was ultimately overthrown due to Parliament’s decision to offer the throne of England to Charles II.
After his father’s execution, Charles II made a journey across the English channel and was crowned as the King of England eleven years later. This event signified the restoration of the English Monarchy, which had been abolished during the Civil War. The primary focus of the newly reestablished Monarchy was to eliminate Oliver Cromwell’s army, a mission supported by Parliament. To achieve this goal, Charles formed the 1st Regiment of foot guards and joined forces with Monck’s army to establish the 2nd Regiment of foot guards. Additionally, Cromwell’s original Regiment of horse was split into two factions: namely, the Duke of York’s lifeguards and the Royal Horse Guards.
This marked the establishment of the British Regular Army, despite the near impossibility of completely dismantling it. King Charles II made significant efforts to diminish its strength. To achieve this, he was compelled to enact an Act of Indemnity and Oblivion, which some viewed favorably as a means of pardoning enemies but unfavorably as a means of forgetting friends. Nonetheless, this action merely acknowledged Parliament’s victory in the English Civil War and the reinstatement of the Monarchy as an act of mercy.
Due to this, both Parliament and the King reached certain agreements: the King could not take money from citizens without first obtaining consent from Parliament, and he could not act outside the jurisdiction of the common law courts, namely the Star chamber, which provided a platform for commonfolk to express their opinions. Additionally, the King retained full authority over military decisions, and no one had authority over him. Despite the turmoil and disorder within both the Monarchy and Parliament, the constitution and structure of society and government seemed unaffected by these traumatic events. Except for the agreements between Parliament and the Monarchy, everything returned to its pre-war state. The King once again faced chronic financial difficulties and relied on Parliament for funding.
Despite undergoing extensive reforms, the English Civil War seemed to have been forgotten over time. The war resulted in various societal changes, including the loss of loved ones, religious rebellions involving the Church of England, and a temporary dissolution of the Monarchy, later restored by Parliament. However, few changes were actually made to English society after everything settled, resembling a regression to pre-war times. It is important to mention that unlike civil wars in Scotland or Ireland, the English Civil War did not have lasting effects.
According to the belief, the Civil War in England was a result of short-term events and miscalculations made by the king, as opposed to long-term effects seen in Ireland and Scotland. However, despite causing significant disruption, England managed to restore itself relatively swiftly to its pre-war condition.
Bibliography:
