Introduction: Despite the significant contributions women make to society, their worth is often limited to their reproductive abilities. Although women have made progress in bettering their own lives and those of their families, disparities persist in areas such as political representation, economic prosperity, healthcare, and human rights. These disparities not only impact individuals but also have wider societal repercussions. Recent findings indicate that elevating the status of women is essential for enhancing family health and well-being while stabilizing global fertility rates.
This activity is centered around the link between women’s status, development, and fertility. It provides visual examples of women from various regions to cater to different learning styles. In this part of the activity, students will learn about the challenges faced by girls and women in underdeveloped countries globally. They will then have the opportunity to view online photo essays and videos that showcase different aspects of girls’ and women’s lives including education, employment, early marriage, pregnancy, and motherhood.
The text suggests that students should engage in this activity over the course of a week, dedicating each day to focusing on a specific issue such as education. The expectation is for students to address the discussion questions associated with each issue. The purpose of this activity is to analyze the inequalities encountered by women worldwide and how these disparities impact population growth and overall quality of life. The goals include encouraging students to discuss and contrast the diverse roles played by girls and women across various cultures, particularly in relation to education, employment, marriage, and parenthood. Furthermore, students will compare their own schooling and work experiences with those of teenagers from different countries.
Gender roles in various countries across the globe can be explored and analyzed. This investigation involves Language Arts, Social Studies, and Women’s Studies. To undertake this project, students will need the Student Reading titled “Women: The Critical Link,” a Student Worksheet, and Internet access to view online photo essays and videos. Skills utilized during this activity include reading comprehension, active listening, group discussion, identifying cause-and-effect relationships, conducting research, and writing tasks such as essays, summaries or book reports. To commence this task, distribute printed copies of the student reading “Women: The Critical Link” or have students read it online.
This reading presents students with an introduction to the condition of women, particularly in underdeveloped nations. It emphasizes inequalities in the treatment of males and females within numerous cultures across various aspects: health/nutrition, education, housework, gainful employment, and political standing. Approach: Students are tasked with reading an article about the status of women in underdeveloped countries and viewing/listening to multiple online photo essays and videos showcasing women from around the globe.
Within their discussions, students apply what they have learned and expand their knowledge through research, persuasive essays, and/or book reports. They can now gain a personal connection to the issues at hand by observing compelling photo essays and videos that delve into various aspects of women’s lives. Hand out the four Student Worksheets which guide students towards online resources that explore different facets of women’s lives in underdeveloped countries (such as education, work, marriage, and motherhood). You may choose to have students tackle these tasks individually or engage in small group discussions centered around the provided discussion questions.
Note: The video mentioned in Student Worksheet 3 has a duration of 55 minutes, while the photo essays for the other worksheets are shorter. 3. What Do You Think? Have students reflect on what they have read and seen by writing one or more essays. Possible topics: • Why do you believe that the “traditional” role for women in many parts of the world has been subordinate to men? If women do “hold up half the sky,” why are they often not given equal respect in many cultures? • Are women’s roles in your own country different nowadays compared to when your mother was your age? How about when your grandmother was your age?
Talk with women of different generations in your family or community to find examples to support your assertion. Are there changes you would like to see in gender roles as you enter adulthood? • How does greater equality between the sexes contribute to a society’s progress? 4. Delve Deeper with Contemporary Literature Encourage students to learn more about women’s issues in the developing world by reading some acclaimed books (both fiction and nonfiction) and preparing book reports or oral reports. Some suggestions:
- Three Cups of Tea: One Man’s Mission to Promote Peace . . One School at a Time by Greg Mortenson – The true-life story of Mortenson’s work to build schools across Afghanistan and Pakistan.
- A Thousand Splendid Suns by Khaled Hosseini – A gripping novel about the difficult lives and hopes of two generations of Afghan women set amongst the backdrop of the country’s tumultuous modern history.
- Half the Sky: Turning Oppression Into Opportunity for Women Worldwide by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn – The authors profile the lives of women they’ve met on their travels who struggle to create better lives for themselves and their children.
In her autobiography, Persepolis: The Story of a Childhood, Marjane Satrapi recounts the experiences of a young girl in Iran during the Islamic Revolution. Published in 2010, this book goes into more depth about women’s lives than photo essays and covers various topics that are valuable for further exploration through research by students. Some suggested areas of research include investigating the preference for boys and its impact on gender ratios in countries like China, India, and South Korea, as well as examining political inequalities such as voting rights and women’s representation in political offices across different nations.
Gender inequality is observed in various forms, such as the restrictions on women’s voting rights and their underrepresentation in Congressional seats compared to other national legislative bodies in the U.S. Furthermore, disparities exist between men and women in terms of job availability and earning potential across different countries.
In certain developed countries, cultural norms and government policies discourage women from having children. For example, Japan lacks family-friendly policies from employers while Spain lacks assistance from men with domestic responsibilities for working women.
The Women’s Lib movement played a significant role during the 1970s in addressing gender inequality in the U.S.
In developed countries like the U.S., both boys and girls are required to attend school or be homeschooled until at least the age of 16.
While children can assist with domestic tasks, their capacity to work outside the house is limited. These limitations aim to prevent their exploitation and promote their engagement in education. It wasn’t until the enactment of the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1938 that this customary practice was established. Before this legislation, numerous children would abandon school at a tender age and seek employment in factories or “sweatshops,” frequently enduring hazardous conditions.
In developing countries, girls often have to end their education early due to responsibilities such as caring for siblings and helping with household chores and agricultural work. Two teenage girls from Nicaragua and the Central African Republic share their daily routines and the importance of school on the United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative website at www.ungei.org. Visit the “News and Events” tab, then click on “Photo essays” to read “A day in the life of a determined schoolgirl” by Haitza Ortiz and “A day in the life of a schoolgirl in the Central African Republic” by Josiane. Let’s discuss: 1. How do Haitza and Josiane differ in terms of family structure? 2. Do they have similar living standards? Explain why or why not. 3. What similarities and differences exist in their daily routines? 4. How do their school experiences compare? 5.What factors will shape these girls’ futures? ©2010 Population Connection A Girl’s Life, page 4
A Girl’s Life Student Worksheet 2: Woman’s Work
In numerous underdeveloped nations, girls and women are responsible for the arduous tasks involved in managing a household and a subsistence farm. In remote areas where residences lack modern amenities such as indoor plumbing and electricity, it is not uncommon for them to spend considerable hours each day gathering water and firewood, often covering long distances. The majority of this toil is unpaid domestic labor, exacting a toll on women’s physical well-being. Due to limited access to formal education and the demands of raising large families, women often encounter obstacles in securing employment outside of their homes.
Cultural traditions often determine gender-specific job roles, impacting the prosperity of families and communities. Pulitzer Prize-winning columnist Nicholas Kristof and his wife, Sheryl WuDunn, have documented the challenges and successes of women in less developed nations. In their renowned book, Half the Sky, they share inspiring stories of these women. To gain firsthand understanding of the challenges faced by women in the eastern Congo, watch Kristof’s video, “What Are You Carrying?”.The text is a series of links and questions related to videos and articles on the topics of women’s empowerment, aid projects, and gender inequality.
Kristof argues that empowering women is the most effective means of combating poverty and extremism. He provides evidence to support this claim. Moreover, can you think of other instances from history or current events that substantiate this viewpoint? ©2010 Population Connection A Girl’s Life, page 5 A Girl’s Life Student Worksheet 3: Child Brides
Numerous girls worldwide face a predetermined future as they are married off by their parents while still being children themselves. This phenomenon is prevalent in Southern Asia, where the majority of girls, almost half, are wed before turning 18. Most of these marriages are arranged.
Child marriages are prevalent in Africa (42 percent) and Latin America (29 percent), with a high percentage observed in both regions. Despite a global decline in this practice, it remains common among the impoverished and rural communities. Compared to unmarried girls, child brides encounter increased risks of early death, health problems, poverty, and illiteracy. Additionally, marrying at a young age frequently results in premature pregnancies when girls are not adequately prepared for motherhood physically or emotionally. Pregnancy complications contribute significantly to the mortality rate among females aged 15-19 worldwide.
Child brides often face negative consequences for their infants, such as premature birth and low birth weights. Additionally, child brides are frequently forced to give up their education when they get married, limiting their job opportunities and perpetuating poverty. Many government leaders have taken steps to address this issue by increasing the minimum legal age for marriage and emphasizing the importance of keeping daughters enrolled in school. To learn more about this topic, you can watch “Child Brides: Stolen Lives,” a video produced by NOW on PBS at http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/341/index.html.
This documentary delves into the experiences of girls in India, Niger, and Guatemala, investigating how culture influences marriage, pregnancy, and education. It highlights the endeavors made by individuals and organizations in these nations to empower these girls and grant them control over their own destinies. The film commences by exposing the widespread occurrence of child marriages in rural regions of India, despite legal restrictions prohibiting marriages for girls below 18 years old.
Why are communities disregarding or feeling endangered by this law and the individuals trying to enforce it? Chukha, an Indian girl we meet, recounts her ordeal of being frequently assaulted by her in-laws in her arranged marriage. What is your viewpoint on the treatment of young girls by older women within the community? In a Niger interview, the Emir underscores that ending child marriage is vital for a nation’s advancement. What are the different ways in which this cultural practice obstructs a country’s progress?
Why don’t the villagers who continue with this practice see the disadvantages for their daughters’ futures and the future of their country? The Veerni School in India, the Good Conduct Brigade in Niger, and the mentorship program in Guatemala are all striving to convince girls and their parents that prioritizing girls’ education is important and that marriage can be delayed. Do you believe these programs will effectively challenge long-standing traditions? Why or why not? How do you perceive child marriage from a human rights perspective? You may want to refer to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations in 1948 at www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/) A Girl’s Life, page 6 ©2010 Population Connection.
A GIRL’S LIFE Student Worksheet 4: Pregnancy, Childbirth and Motherhood Maternal and child mortality are significant issues in the world’s poorest countries. Every year, half a million women die during childbirth, and 11 million children do not survive past their fifth birthdays. A woman’s experience of pregnancy, childbirth, and motherhood varies greatly depending on her location, socioeconomic status, and level of education.
The fertility rates vary significantly among countries. Taiwan has an average of one child per woman, while Niger has over seven children. In Niger, the lifetime risk of maternal death is one in seven. The World Health Organization (WHO) has created an interactive flash movie and photo stories called “Great Expectations.” These stories follow the pregnancies and early lives of six women from different countries: UK, India, Ethiopia, Bolivia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, and Egypt. You can find these stories on WHO’s website: http://www.who.int/features/great_expectations/en/. On the website, you can also find photo stories that document the babies’ development during their first year. To access more information, viewers have the option to watch the interactive flash movie or listen to the audio introduction or read the stories on a map. The photo stories begin at “5 months pregnant” and continue until “The world of a nine-month old,” providing updates on each stage of the babies’ growth. After reviewing this material, individuals can discuss various aspects such as differences in prenatal care among these women and compare their childbirth experiences while considering influencing factors.
What role did the fathers play during the first weeks and months of their babies’ lives? How did the women’s ages and number of children affect how they approached this pregnancy and birth? ©2010 Population Connection A Girl’s Life, page 7 Student Reading Women: The Critical Link “Women hold up half the sky,” reads an old Chinese saying. Indeed, women have traditionally been the world’s farmers, child bearers, and caretakers of young and old – the backbone of families and societies. Women play a central role in the effective development of families, communities, nations, and regions.
Despite making significant contributions to humanity, women still face gender discrimination in many parts of the world. Being born female in developing countries often results in a lifetime of being treated as inferior, lacking access to the same opportunities as males in areas such as health, education, employment, and legal rights. This inequality negatively impacts women’s well-being and also contributes to rapid population growth rates globally.
The delegates at the 1994 ICPD conference determined that in order to achieve balance between population and resources, as well as sustainable patterns of consumption and production, it is essential to eliminate discrimination against women in social, cultural, political, and economic aspects. Therefore, improving the status of women directly affects population growth and environmental degradation.
The text reveals that the conditions that contribute to women’s dependence on men are also the same conditions that promote high fertility rates. If parents have limited resources and are aware of the limited opportunities for their daughters in terms of paid employment, they will not prioritize their daughters’ health or education. Consequently, as these girls mature, their only means of security lies in marrying early and having children. In cases where women lack the skills or opportunities to earn income and support themselves, they become economically reliant on their husbands. Furthermore, as they age, if they have no savings and receive no government assistance such as social security, they must rely on their male children to care for them.
In contrast, dismantling barriers that prevent women from accessing health and family planning services, education, employment, land, and credit not only grants them more independence but also promotes decreased fertility rates. This trend is observed globally: when women have more control over their lives and rely less on motherhood for support and security, they tend to choose smaller families and delay childbirth. Throughout this reading, titled “A Girl’s Life” on page 8 of African Woman and Child, we will explore how discrimination against women in health services, nutrition, education, and work contributes to higher fertility rates and population growth. Additionally, we will discover how equal access to these resources leads to lower fertility rates and better conservation of resources. Nutrition plays a vital role in maintaining healthy bodies and lives. The societal pressure for women to bear male sons who will take care of them in old age, coupled with high infant mortality rates, drives women to have larger families in the hope of having at least one or two boys who survive until maturity.
This preference for sons puts girl children at a disadvantage from a very young age, as they are often not given the same level of nutrition and medical care as their male counterparts. A study conducted in Bangladesh revealed that boys under the age of five receive 16 percent more food than girls. In India, girls are more likely to suffer from acute malnutrition. Additionally, women are often malnourished even during pregnancy, with only 20 to 40 percent of women in developing countries consuming the recommended 2,200 calories per day. Pregnant women require a minimum of 2,500 calories.
In developing countries, iron deficiencies in the diet affect 50% of pregnant women, which can result in anemia and protein energy deficiencies in their children. This leads to high infant mortality rates. Young Motherhood, or getting married and having a child at a young age, is harmful to women and contributes to population growth. From a demographic standpoint, early marriage and childbirth increase fertility rates, but they also have significant repercussions on a young woman’s health and life choices. However, in Africa, 50% of women are married by the time they turn 18.
Forty-eight percent of women in southern Asia and 29 percent of women in Latin America are married before their eighteenth birthday, compared to 10 percent in developed regions. In developing regions, 40 percent of women have given birth before the age of 20. Pregnancy and childbirth pose greater risks for underdeveloped girls.
Women’s literacy rates and population growth in selected countries:
- Afghanistan
- Mali
- Pakistan
- Yemen
- Sudan
- Dominican Republic
- Sri Lanka
- Jamaica
- Colombia
- Thailand
Female literacy rate in 2007:
Data sources: UNDP Human Development Report, 2009; PRB World Population Data Sheet, 2007. Population Growth Rate 2007 ©2010 Population Connection A Girl’s Life, page 9 especially if their growth is stunted from malnutrition. Teen mothers are more likely to be anemic, less likely to seek prenatal care, more likely to have complicated labor, and more likely to have a premature and low birth weight infant. Mothers aged 15 to 19 are twice as likely to die in childbirth as mothers who are between the ages of 20 and 25, and the children of these younger women are also twice as likely to die. Early pregnancy affects other aspects of young women’s lives as well. It is the leading cause of women dropping out of school in Africa and Latin America. It hurts the chances women have to improve their lives, health, educational attainment, employment, and decision making power in their families and communities. 9 Maternal mortality, or death due to childbirth or pregnancy-related causes, is the leading cause of death among women of reproductive age in developing countries. Worldwide, it claims the lives of half a million women each year, but the vast majority occur in the developing world.
A woman residing in West Africa has a significantly higher likelihood, at 1 in 13, of experiencing death during pregnancy or childbirth compared to women living in northern Europe, with a risk of only 1 in 3,900. Many maternal mortalities can be prevented efficiently and inexpensively. Approximately half of these deaths could be averted by preventing unwanted pregnancies. An unwanted pregnancy can encompass a situation where a woman does not desire any more children or when the pregnancy occurs at an inconvenient time, such as soon after another pregnancy or when the mother is very young or advanced in age.
Limiting a woman’s total number of pregnancies and increasing the spacing between pregnancies through the use of family planning decreases the risk of hemorrhaging (excessive bleeding) during childbirth. 12 About 80% of maternal deaths are attributed to hemorrhage, infection, or complications from unsafe abortions. 13 By preventing unwanted and mistimed pregnancies, a significant number of the 529,000 annual maternal deaths can be avoided. 14 ©2010 Population Connection
Former Executive Director of the United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA), Nafis Sadik, believes that family planning represents the foundation of all other freedoms. Access to family planning information and services allows couples to control the number and timing of their children, leading to reduced infant mortality and improved health for women and children. Despite progress, approximately 200 million women still lack access to these essential services, including a range of contraceptive options. While total fertility rates have decreased from 3.2 children per woman in 1990 to about 2.7 children, there are 35 countries where women continue to have an average of five or more children, with modern contraception usage as low as four percent. It is crucial to have access to barrier methods of contraception, such as condoms, not only for preventing unwanted pregnancies but also for preventing the spread of sexually transmitted diseases like AIDS. This was highlighted in 1994.
Reprinted with permission from Bread for the World, as printed in Women, Health and Development. A Girl’s Life, page 10. A health worker in the Philippines calls names of girls for weighing. Photo; Marian Starkey. Women represented about 40 percent of all AIDS cases worldwide. However, women are contracting the virus at a faster rate than men. In 2006, women represented 48 percent of adults living with HIV globally and 59 percent of those in SubSaharan Africa. Education Opens Doors: Discrimination against girls in education is another condition that hurts women and leads to population growth.
Despite some progress in recent decades, the enrollment of girls in primary and secondary schools remains lower than that of boys in many countries. In developing countries, 85 percent of girls and 89 percent of boys are currently enrolled in primary school, while 51 percent of girls and 52 percent of boys are enrolled in secondary school. Globally, the adult female literacy rate is 74 percent, which is lower than the male rate of 86 percent. Educating girls is highly effective in equipping them with self-sufficiency, job skills, and decision-making power within their families and communities. ©2010 Population Connection
Education is crucial for women as it reduces their reliance on having multiple children for security and status, promoting self-sufficiency. The level of education a woman attains has proven to be a significant determinant of her fertility rate and the well-being of her children. Numerous studies consistently demonstrate that educated women tend to wed later, desire fewer children, actively employ effective contraception methods, and possess greater economic opportunities to enhance their livelihoods. In Africa, where approximately 50 percent of adult women are illiterate, the average number of children per woman surpasses five. Conversely, in regions such as Latin America, the Caribbean, and eastern and southeastern Asia, where female illiteracy rates have reduced to approximately 12 percent, the fertility rate per woman falls under three. Furthermore, women face disadvantages across all types of labor, bearing a larger burden of unpaid work and enduring discrimination in both formal and informal employment sectors.” A Girl’s Life, page 11
Women often work longer hours than men, as a survey of eight developing countries found that women work an average of one hour and nine minutes more per day. However, women make up only 40 percent of the global paid labor force. Consequently, if women are denied employment opportunities that offer status and economic security, they tend to resort to early marriages and early childbearing. Conversely, when women have equal access to paid employment, they tend to have fewer children and start their families at a later stage.
This trend presents new opportunities for women, while also addressing the issues of population growth and environmental degradation. Women are primarily responsible for unpaid household work, which includes childcare, collecting water and fuel wood for cooking and heating, as well as growing, processing, and cooking food for the family. In Africa, women cultivate 60 to 80 percent of the food. This work connects women to the land and often makes them more vulnerable to environmental degradation.
Desertification and resource depletion lead to increased time spent by women in collecting firewood and water. In times of wood scarcity, women have to utilize cow manure as fuel instead of reserving it as fertilizer for their crops. As per a report by the U.N. Population Fund, burning every ton of fertilizer can result in the loss of up to 110 pounds of grain from the subsequent harvest. Ironically, environmental degradation and pollution provide women with incentives to have more children who can assist them in farming and gathering wood and water.
The rate of population growth increases due to higher fertility, which is often one of the main causes of resource scarcity. Women’s work also includes work in the informal economy, which is made up of people who provide goods and services, often from their homes. In many developing countries, more than 60 percent of individuals active in the informal sector are women. In India, this percentage is 86 percent, while in Kenya it is 83 percent. The reason women make up a larger proportion of the informal labor force than men is due to limited opportunities or barriers to wage employment. Moreover, women often encounter obstacles to succeed in the informal sector.
Typically, women face a lack of credit options, specifically small loans that could be utilized to establish small businesses. This absence of credit hampers their ability to generate additional income for their families. Research indicates that when women are granted access to low-interest credit, they not only repay their loans but also enhance their income and assets. The additional resources are then utilized to enhance the wellbeing of their families in areas such as education, health, and nutrition. 28 Visible Work
Women in the formal sector on average marry 2.4 years later than those who do not. Additionally, when women have to give up their jobs to take care of their children, it hinders couples from having larger families and decreases women’s paid employment. Despite progress, there are still obstacles preventing women from having equal opportunities in the workforce, such as lack of maternity leave and affordable childcare. Furthermore, even in situations where women make up a significant portion of the labor force, they tend to have lower status jobs and earn lower wages compared to men.
According to the National Committee on Pay Equity, the average wage for women in the United States was less than 77% of the average wage for men in 2006. In many countries, women are often employed in “pink collar” professions such as teaching, cleaning, nursing, waiting tables, and working in textile mills. Although there has been progress in women’s participation and advancement in the labor force, they still hold a small percentage of managerial and administrative positions. Additionally, in 2006, women made up less than 17% of parliamentarians worldwide. Ensuring equal access to nutrition, health services, education, land, employment, and credit for women is crucial for promoting their human rights. When women are well-nourished, educated, and have access to job opportunities, they have more freedom in making choices for their lives and are not dependent solely on their husbands or male children for security. As women become more equal partners in marriages, family size decreases. The combination of skills, opportunities, and access also contributes to slower population growth and resource depletion.
