Introduction
Research methodology involves the approach a researcher takes to achieve their research goals. This includes the research design used, methods of data collection, data classification, analysis, and interpretation. Research methodology serves as the foundation upon which a study is built and executed. It determines how a study will be conducted. Since there are various research methods available, it is crucial to choose the appropriate methodology for conducting a study. This not only makes the study easier to conduct but also validates its results.
For example, survey research design is commonly used in market research because it is reliable and cost-effective. In psychological studies, observational methods are widely utilized – either manipulated or non-manipulated observation may be used depending on the context of the study. In social psychology studies, researchers may participate in group activities or observe from afar.
The application of proper research methods and methodologies is essential for obtaining accurate and valid results and conclusions.
Research methods involve two types of research designs: experimental and non-experimental. Experimental research is typically conducted in natural sciences and medical fields, where it takes place in a laboratory setting with an experimented object and controlled object to check for differences in the results. However, quasi-experimental studies are also conducted in social sciences without the need for a laboratory setting to test results. For instance, marketing research uses experiments to investigate controllable marketing mix variables such as product, price, promotion, distribution, consumer behavior and even marketing research itself (Patzer 1996:3). Experimental research tests hypotheses to determine if there is a causal relationship between two or more variables. It can be divided into three groups: true (classical) experimental design; quasi-experimental design; and pre-experimental (single subject) design.
On the other hand, non-experimental research designs include historical research; ex-post facto research; case study; correlational studies; prediction studies; developmental studies; and survey design (Socwest.wise.edu).
The essay will analyze the association between 8th grade Wisconsin knowledge and concepts exam scores and student grade point averages in school. This analysis will be conducted by applying different methodologies while executing a professional learning community model.
Using a case study research method
A case study approach in research methods involves conducting a study on a specific instance to provide an explanation for general application based on the findings. The case study research method is used to establish cause and effect. One of its strengths is observing the effect in real contexts, recognizing that context is a powerful determinant of both causes and effects (Cohen et al., 2000:181).
When using the case study approach as a methodology to answer the research question, What is the association between 8th grade Wisconsin knowledge and concepts exam scores and student grade point averages in schools executing a professional learning community?”, this study will focus on a specific high school that adopts the professional learning community model in its operation. For example, St. Andrews High School in Queensland would be chosen as the case study.
The research will concentrate on students in 8th grade at St. Andrews High School. A sample of students will be drawn from the total population of 250 8th graders using either simple random sampling or systematic sampling techniques to avoid bias during selection.
The selected sample will be analyzed to determine if there is a relationship between their scores on Wisconsin knowledge and concepts exams and their grade point averages at St. Andrews High School.
To confirm results, other case studies with similar characteristics to St. Andrews High School, such as Anglican Boys High School in Charlton town or High Achievers High school in Belford (note: these schools are not real), will also be introduced for comparative analysis. It is important to select case studies with similar environmental and managerial conditions to ensure fair comparison.
The same techniques for sample collection and analysis should be used across all schools studied, along with conducting exams during the same time frame for each school’s students. This ensures valid results can be derived from comparing exam scores across different schools.
After comparing exam scores from each school’s 8th graders, conclusions can then be drawn about whether or not there is a significant relationship between Wisconsin knowledge and concepts exam scores and student grade point averages among schools executing professional learning communities models.
The advantages of using a case study approach are numerous. It provides a unique example of real people in real situations, making it easier for readers to understand ideas more clearly than simply presenting them with abstract theories or principles. Case studies tend to help readers understand how ideas and abstract principles can fit together. They also penetrate situations in ways that are not always susceptible to numerical analysis (ibid).
According to Hitchcock & Hughes (1995:322), cited in Cohen et al (2000: 181), a case study has several hallmarks:
The article provides a rich and vivid description of events that are relevant to the case.
It provides a chronological narrative of events that are relevant to the case.
It blends a description of events with their analysis.
It focuses on individual actors or groups of actors and seeks to understand their perceptions of events.
It highlights specific events that are relevant to the case.
The researcher is involved in the case to a great extent.
An attempt is made to portray the richness of the case when writing up the report.
Using a descriptive research method.
A descriptive research method involves a qualitative approach to analyzing and interpreting variables under study. Unlike quantitative analysis, which uses statistical tools to analyze and interpret data collected from research, the qualitative or descriptive approach provides a description of variables and interprets the data in a descriptive manner.
According to Sue & Trevor (2001), the distinction between qualitative research methods and qualitative approaches lies in the fact that qualitative data is associated with concepts that do not always depend on numbers for meaning. Qualitative research is characterized by its richness and fullness, as it allows for a more realistic exploration of a subject. The meaning in qualitative approaches is derived from expressed words, and data collection is done in a non-standardized manner, requiring classification into categories. Analysis is conducted through conceptualization.
Using a descriptive research method, the aim is to investigate the association between 8th grade Wisconsin Knowledge and Concept Exam scores and student grade point averages in schools that implement a professional learning community model. The methodology is based on conceptual terms associated with the research, where drawn out concepts are described to provide interpretation and conclusion. For example, questions may be raised about how students in a particular year performed in the examination, what conditions of learning they were subjected to, whether teachers were fair with their grading, and how adopting a professional learning community model has affected student grades positively or negatively. All these questions are conceptualized, and descriptions are provided to analyze them by drawing out observed differences and areas of similarities to support arguments.
To use this approach, follow these steps:
Firstly, the researcher would conduct an initial semi-structured or in-depth interview regarding the subject matter. For example, this could be about the correlation between 8th grade student scores on the Wisconsin Knowledge and Concepts Exam and their grade point averages in school while implementing a professional learning community model.
Secondly, this research work will be based on a deductive reasoning approach. This means that meaning will be derived from the specific to the general. The researcher will develop a provisional set of categories for research questions, objectives, conceptual framework, research themes and initial propositions. It is expected that the researcher produces a description of each of these.
An analysis is conducted by the researcher to identify differences or similarities based on the described concepts. The conclusion serves as a way of presenting your findings and justifying how they were obtained.
The descriptive method of research has several strengths when compared to other research methods:
It involves making detailed observations, descriptions, and documentation of existing research variables.
It justifies and assesses current conditions and practices.
It determines the differences between variables.
The weakness associated with the descriptive research method is that it only relates research variables to each other without attempting to determine their causation (Burna, 2005). Additionally, if not properly handled, this method can be biased and have low reliability. In contrast, the quantitative approach uses statistical figures from collected data and analyzes results to draw conclusions. According to Burna (2005), the advantage of using descriptive research is that a large amount of information can be obtained from a large population in an economical manner that is surprisingly accurate. However, there are also disadvantages:
Information tends to be superficial when breath is emphasized.
Expertise in sampling techniques, questionnaire construction, interviewing, and data analysis is essential to produce a reliable and valid study.
Time-consuming and costly to build structures.
Using the correlational method
The correlational research approach aims to establish the existing relationship between two or more variables. This approach is primarily statistical, and data are analyzed quantitatively. In a correlational study, there is no intervention or treatment based on the researcher’s reasoning. The goal is to understand the causes of naturally occurring phenomena (socwest.wise.edu, 2001).
When using the correlational method to study a research proposition, the variables being related are the exam scores of 8th grade students in a course. The question being asked is whether these scores are related to their grade point averages. Data is collected from students in 8th grade at a school that adopts the professional learning community model, based on a sampled population. The collected data is based on their performance in the course and their actual grade point averages. These two variables are examined to see if they covary, and correlational analysis is used statistically to check this covariance.
The result derived from the correlational analysis is interpreted to determine if there is a strong or weak relationship between these variables. Therefore, the correlational approach quantifies only the strength of this relationship and not its cause and effect (Burna, 2005). Thus, using this method will either give evidence of a positive or negative relationship for the proposition under study.
The results range from -1 to +1; for example, if an obtained result is .08 it signifies that there is a strong positive relationship between 8th-grade student scores on Wisconsin knowledge and concepts exams and their grade point averages at this school under study. However, assuming that an obtained result was .03 would indicate that there was only weak positivity between these variables.
If an obtained result were -.9 it would mean there was negatively strong correlation etc.
The correlational method offers several advantages:
Increased flexibility in investigating complex relationships among variables.
An efficient and effective method for collecting a large amount of data.
Potential for practical application in clinical settings.
A potential foundation for future experimental studies.
A framework for exploring relationships that are not manipulated.
There are several disadvantages to consider:
Unable to manipulate the variable of interest.
There is no randomization in sampling.
Generalizability decreases when dealing with pre-existing groups.
It is difficult to establish a causal relationship due to the absence of manipulation, control, and randomization (ibid).
Using the ex post facto method.
The ex post facto method adopts a study that carries out ‘after the fact’ research. Here, the research is conducted on already established phenomena. In ex post facto research, the researcher takes the effect as a dependent variable and examines the data retrospectively to establish causes, relationships or associations, and their meanings. According to Cohen et al (2000:209), the characteristics of ex post facto studies are that they examine data to establish causes, relationships, associations and proffer meaning to them; it becomes apparent when contrasted with true experimental research. Thus, it describes the modus operandi of an experimental researcher. By their true nature, ex post facto studies can provide support for any number of different hypotheses – perhaps even contradictory ones – as they are so completely flexible that it is largely a matter of postulating hypotheses according to one’s personal preference.
Using the ex post facto method to research our proposition, we will utilize existing historical data on the performance scores of 8th grade students and their average grade points. This method draws a causal relationship from available data on 8th grade students’ performance in Wisconsin Knowledge and Concepts Exam scores and their general performance, i.e., their student grade point averages.
The ex post facto research can use two designs: the correlational (or causal) model and the causal-comparative. In the correlational model, the causal model attempts to identify the antecedent of a present condition. In our research proposition, we will consider what is responsible for students’ performance in Wisconsin Knowledge and Concepts Exam as an antecedent to determine present conditions.
Questions such as whether students are adequately taught and prepared for exams or if learning and examination conditions are conducive to good student performance need to be asked. Additionally, it is important to determine if student grade point averages obtained from examinations are comparable with those obtained in Wisconsin Knowledge and Concepts Exam. All these questions need answers so that a causal relationship between past events and present conditions can be established linking Wisconsin Knowledge and Concepts Exam scores with 8th-grade student’s average grades under study.
According to Cohen et al. (2000), there are advantages and disadvantages associated with the ex post facto research method:
Ex post facto research serves an important purpose for researchers when a more rigorous experimental approach is not feasible. For instance, the alleged relationship between smoking and cancer cannot be tested experimentally.
This method provides useful information about the nature of phenomena.
Advancements in statistical techniques and general methodology have made ex post facto research more defensible.
In situations where artificiality introduced by experimental methods can hinder research proceedings, ex post facto becomes a more useful alternative than the experimental method.
It is particularly suitable when exploring simple cause-and-effect relationships.
This method can provide direction and generate hypotheses that can be tested through a more rigorous experimental approach.
The limitations or weaknesses associated with ex post facto research include:
One problem is the lack of control, where the researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable or randomize research subjects. Classifying into dichotomous groups can also be problematic. It is uncertain whether the causative factor has been identified or included, and it may be that no single factor is the cause. Additionally, a particular outcome may result from different causes on different occasions.
Using survey design methods can help mitigate some of these issues.
The survey design method involves gathering data through various instruments such as face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, self-administered questionnaires, and mailed questionnaires. This research method is particularly significant in social sciences and management sciences research work. It has the advantage of making research subjects feel relaxed and willing to answer questions asked, especially when using questionnaires to gather data from respondents.
The survey content typically includes direct questioning that answers how, what, and what extent questions. These questions usually focus on what was done or what people plan to do in the future. Survey design is a research method used to collect data from a defined population to describe the current condition of the population using variables under study.
Survey design does more than merely uncover data. They interpret, synthesize and integrate these data and point out implications and interrelationships” (Bankole, 2003:15).
When applying a research proposition through survey design, it is necessary to draw a sample from the targeted population using any sampling technique. However, for research such as the one associated with our research statement, simple random or quota sampling techniques are adequate. Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling method that involves selecting a sample in line with quotas or strata in the total population. According to Odiagbe (1999:48), quota samples are selected so that various components appear not only in proportion to their sizes in the target population but selection is stopped as soon as enough of the sub-group is selected.
Certain questions need to be drawn around the research proposition. For example, questions such as Do you think the grading system in your school is fair?” and “Do you have adequate teaching and preparation before writing Wisconsin knowledge and concepts exam?” can be built around the research statement. These questions and more can be included on questionnaires with options provided for each question. The purpose of providing options is to restrict responses to manageable proportions.
Scaling can also be apportioned to each option provided, such as 1-5 scales apportioned to options like Strongly disagree (1), Disagree (2), Uncertain (3), Agree (4), Strongly agree (5). This scaling enables statistical analysis of data obtained from respondents.
The research question can then be tested using statistical tools like chi-square, regression or correlation analysis which will give conclusions on whether to accept or reject it.
The strength of survey design is that it allows for the collection of data from a large sample size, providing a representative view of the population being studied. Additionally, surveys can be easily standardized and replicated, making them useful for tracking changes over time or comparing results across different groups. Surveys also allow for anonymity and confidentiality, which can encourage participants to provide honest responses.
Questionnaires and interviews are data collecting tools that offer high levels of validity and reliability. Face-to-face interviews using surveys yield quality data about the person being interviewed and the questions posed. Survey design is useful for carrying out large-scale studies covering a large population. It can estimate the needs of a group, community, or organization and make recommendations for priorities (Burna, 2005). However, survey design also has its disadvantages; it requires a lot of time, incurs more cost, and requires the researcher to have expertise in sampling techniques.
Conclusion.
The utilization of the right research design for conducting a study not only leads to accuracy and high validity of conclusions and findings, but also saves time and resources, leading to efficient research. With several research designs available, it is up to researchers to choose the most conducive design that will lead to obtaining valid results. As seen with our analyzed and compared research questions, there are advantages and disadvantages associated with specific research designs. Therefore, it is necessary to weigh these factors when choosing a design and methodology in order to obtain valid results.
REFERENCES
Bankole, A.R. (2003) Research Methods: An Introductory Approach. Lagos: Adeshina Print Production & Publication.
Burna, Kource K. (2005) discusses the reasons for undertaking non-experimental studies in their presentation available at www.ualberta.ca/
Cohen, Louis et al. (2000). Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge Falmer.
Patzer, Gordon L. (1996) wrote a book titled Experiment-Research Methodology in Marketing: Types and Applications” which discusses different types and applications of research methodology in marketing. The book was published by Quorum Books in Westport, CT.
Socwest.wise.edu (2001) provides information on the different types of research designs. The lecture can be found at www.socwest.wise.edu/courses/650/Lecture4-01.ppt and was accessed on 12/08/06.
Sue Harding and Trevor Long wrote the book MBA Management Models” in London in 2001. The publisher is Gower Publishing Ltd.
Odiagbe, Martin (1999) wrote A Handbook of Research Methods for Seminar Presentations and Term Paper Writing. The book was published in Lagos by Win Computer System.
