Behind every great structure in the world, there are the individuals responsible for its creation and the meticulous design process. The builders of Stonehenge achieved the remarkable feat of constructing a highly intricate and enigmatic monument that endured long after their demise. The various components and construction methods employed in Stonehenge provide valuable insights into the intellectual capacity and advanced skills of the ancient civilizations behind its conception, even though determining the specific identities of these individuals remains challenging.
Despite the lack of evidence, it is clear that the prehistoric peoples who built Stonehenge had advanced technology and wisdom. The monument’s construction required extensive planning and assembling by multiple groups over a period of one thousand years (2800 BC to 1500 BC). Understanding how these ancient peoples came together is crucial in comprehending their everyday lives, culture, surroundings, and relationships with other civilizations.
Some of the early men connected to the Stonehenge builders arrived in England after the ice blocking Britain and France melted around 10,000 BC (Souden, 104). Following them, numerous other groups migrated from the mainland, significantly impacting the existing inhabitants. The Windmill Hill people were the initial group involved in constructing Stonehenge.
The individuals mentioned were semi-nomadic farmers who primarily tended to their livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs) and cultivated wheat. They were among the final Neolithic arrivals in England during the period known as the New Stone Age (4300-2200 BC). Aside from farming, they also engaged in hunting, flint mining, axe production, and trade, displaying traits akin to industrialists. The Windmill Hill community possessed a highly significant religious belief system that placed great importance on honoring their deceased and ancestors.
Stonehenge was enriched with remarkable collective graves, which were long barrows consisting of man-made piles of dirt, measuring up to 300 feet in length (Hawkins, 36). The Beaker people, who followed, were recognized for their distinctive beaker-shaped pottery, frequently interred alongside their deceased. Unlike the previous group, they did not engage in collective burials but instead opted for single or double burials, often accompanied by additional weapons like daggers and axes. These single burials took place in round barrows.
The Beaker people were a highly organized, active, and powerful culture. They were also likely more territorial, as noted by Hawkins (36). The Beaker people engaged in commerce with other societies and their burial sites suggest the presence of an aristocratic class within their society, according to Niel (84).
Another significant group contributing to the construction of Stonehenge was the Wessex culture group. This group arrived on Salisbury plain approximately 1400 BC and played a key role in constructing the remarkable stone circles that form the central feature of Stonehenge (Niel, 86). The Wessex culture group displayed high levels of organization and were probably less aggressive than their predecessors, but they were more industrious. Instead of focusing on warfare, the Wessex people prioritized art, peace, and trade.
The graves of their chieftains, who were the only members of society preserved for the afterlife, contained goods like daggers, bows, and other ornaments. The access to these treasures may have been due to their extensive trading network with people from the Mediterranean Sea area (Hawkins, 37). They were responsible for constructing the final phase of Stonehenge, which brought about cultural changes to the monument, enhancing its visual magnificence and astronomical precision (Service + Bradbery, 255). To comprehend the complexity involved in building Stonehenge, understanding the process and environment during its construction is essential. At that time, the landscape surrounding Salisbury Plain was relatively open with more farmland and grazing land, and less forest.
Under the top layer of soil on Salisbury Plain, there existed a significant layer of hard chalk, which made the construction of basic structures easier for the people living during that time period. The initial step in the construction of Stonehenge involved creating an earth monument. This monument included a circular dirt bank, originally around 6 feet in height but now only about 2 feet tall, accompanied by a ditch running alongside it. Two entrances were formed by breaks in the ditch and bank. Inside the earth bank, there were 56 Aubrey Holes, named after their discoverer John Aubrey, arranged in a circle. This initial phase, known as Stonehenge I and built by the Windmill Hill people, was completed between 2950 and 2900 BC (Souden, 30).
The second phase of building Stonehenge was slightly more detailed than the first. During this stage, a wooden monument was created, as evidenced by the postholes scattered on the floor of the monument. There was a roughly corridor-shaped structure at the southern entrance of the earth monument, and a more detailed setting around the northeastern entrance (Souden, 32). The Avenue, consisting of a pair of long, straight, and parallel ditches, was also believed to be part of this second phase of Stonehenge. The Beaker people, between the years 2800 and 2300 BC, are often credited with constructing Stonehenge II.
The stone monument is the third and most impressive stage of the monument. It consisted of six sub phases and took the longest time to build. The sequence started with the arrival of the bluestones, followed by the sarsen stones. There was a possible arrangement of the bluestones before they were erected. After some rearranging, the stones were set in their final positions. Additionally, small holes called X and Y holes were dug around the outside of the stone circles. The builders of Stonehenge III were likely the people of the Wessex Culture in alliance with other peoples. Despite its complexity, it required a significant amount of time, patience, and persistence to complete the construction (Souden, 35).
The bluestones were transported over a distance of 200 to 250 miles from their source in the Prescelly Mountains to the Stonehenge site. It is likely that they were carried via waterways for most of the journey due to the safety, speed, and ease of transportation they offered. One possible route involved dragging the stones to the nearest coastal point to the mountains, then along the Bristol Channel coastline, and finally into the river systems of England. From there, they would be transported along the Stonehenge Avenue, and potentially carried up the Avenue towards the monument (Hawkins, 65). The easiest way to transport the stones over land was by using a crew of men to haul them on rollers.
Similar transportation methods were employed for the sarsen stones, although their origin was much closer, as they came from the Marlborough Downs, only approximately 20 miles north of Stonehenge. A relatively clear land path allowed for minimal water transport. However, each of these stones weighed around 30 tons, so to haul them over 20 miles of hilly terrain would have likely required the efforts of 1,000 men and taken 7 years to complete (Hawkins, 66). The sarsen stones were placed into large holes in the ground and connected to their lintels using mortise-and-tenon joints, while the lintels themselves were joined together (in the outer circle) with tongue-and-groove joints (Souden, 88). Significant organizational skills were necessary to coordinate such a large workforce in order to carry out the physical labor involved in erecting such a monument.
The effort invested in creating this monument is unmatched in comparison to anything that would be undertaken in the present day. Once the construction, refining, and arrangement were completed, the resulting structure was remarkable. There is an outermost circle (still significantly inside the ditch and bank) consisting of 30 sarsen stones, each approximately 13 feet 6 inches tall (Niel, 28), with each stone connected to its neighboring stones on either side by a lintel stone. Inside this circle of sarsens is another circle made of bluestones, smaller stones that are generally not much taller than 6 feet.
Within the bluestone circle of Stonehenge, there resides the trilithon horseshoe, a horseshoe-shaped arrangement of sarsens placed in pairs with a lintel atop. The open end of the horseshoe faces the northeast. Enclosed within the trilithon horseshoe is a bluestone horseshoe. Positioned somewhat towards the center of the bluestone horseshoe lies the altar stone, which may not have served its assumed purpose.
Near the entrance of the monument stands the heel stone, located just south of the avenue’s central line. Close by, within the breach in the circular bank, rests the slaughter stone on the ground. Inside the earthen bank, four station stones are present: one pointing north, one pointing south, and two configuring a line perpendicular to the avenue’s axis.
The sarsen stones were shaped and dressed, with most of them having a convex shape to enhance the perception of grandeur when looking up at the monuments. The purpose of Stonehenge remains uncertain, with limited evidence beyond its burial sites and direct observations. Numerous hypotheses have been proposed, with some suggesting it was a temple, a burial ground, or a solar/lunar observatory. Among these conjectures, the most widely accepted theory is that Stonehenge served as all three. The main entrance of Stonehenge faces the sunrise on the summer solstice, aligned with the Avenues opening.
When standing in the center of the monument on the longest day of the year, one can observe the sun rising directly over the heel stone, which compels the viewer to take notice of the sunrise on this particular day. The original four station stones that were placed around the circle create various alignments that point to the rise and set positions of the sun and moon during the winter and summer solstices. It is remarkable that the combined solstice rise and set positions of the sun and moon can only be arranged in a perfect rectangle at the latitude where Stonehenge is located.
According to Cohen (8), a slight change in location north or south would result in a parallelogram formation. Additionally, Hawkins (109) states that each trilithon in the central horseshoe of Stonehenge corresponds to specific alignments, with two trilithons for sunset alignments, one for sunrise, and two for lunar alignments. This not only demonstrates the builders’ appreciation for celestial phenomena but also highlights their advanced knowledge of geometry and science, enabling them to accurately determine angle measurements and proportions.
The Aubrey Holes were potentially used as a method for predicting eclipses. The 56 Aubrey Holes corresponded to 3 cycles of the moons orbital wobble, which occurs in cycles of 18.66 years. These holes could be aligned with different solar positions in Stonehenge to determine when the sun and moon would coincide in the sky. By moving three markers around the 56 positions of the Aubrey holes, an eclipse could be predicted when all three markers were in the same spot (White, 194).
According to Dimitrikopoulos (file: enigma.cfm), Stonehenge contained the remains of a large number of people, indicating that it served as a main burial site during the Stone and Bronze Ages*. Interestingly, a significant number of cremations were discovered on the southeast side of the circle, which coincides with the moon’s most southerly rise (Bragard, Ancient Voices). This suggests that the Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures placed great importance on death and the afterlife, ensuring that proper burials were conducted.
The society that built Stonehenge had a hierarchical structure, as evidenced by the fact that not all members could be given a proper burial in the limited space. Stonehenge is a place of worship that is highly detailed and significant. The celestial alignments observed at Stonehenge emphasize concepts that are greater and more enduring than humanity, possibly serving as the foundation of the prehistoric cultures’ religion in the region. When viewed from above, the lintels in the outer sarsen circle form a perfectly level circle with the ground, suggesting that it was intended to be seen from a higher vantage point rather than by those on the ground (Niel, 33).
The preoccupation with death and the afterlife among the individuals inhabiting Salisbury Plain appears to be a distinct religion in itself. It is possible that the deities representing the sun and moon, as they undergo birth and death through their own cycles of rising and setting (particularly the moon’s cycle of waxing and waning), could assist humans in being reincarnated in the afterlife. According to Bragard’s book Ancient Voices, this hypothesis suggests that the builders and inhabitants of the Stone Age meticulously devised and planned a method for demonstrating the value of their gods. The intelligence and sophistication of the people of Stonehenge are also evident in the other nearby monuments crafted by them and their neighboring communities.
Most of the enclosures and round barrows near Stonehenge were constructed as burial sites. Typically, one or two individuals were interred inside these structures, often accompanied by valuable items like daggers, pottery, and occasionally even gold ornaments (Souden, 44). These precious objects served as symbols of high social standing and significant political influence, hinting at the organized governance and belief systems of the cultures inhabiting Salisbury Plain. Stonehenge stands as a testament to the progression and transformation of prehistoric society, evolving into a well-established civilization with rulers, priests, and different social classes engaged in agriculture and other industries. Moreover, Stonehenge’s connections with distant cultures demonstrate its involvement in trade and diplomatic relations. Thus, the notion that Stone Age men were crude and uncivilized is completely misplaced when it comes to Stonehenge.
The cultures of Windmill Hill, the Beaker people, and Wessex all showcase well-organized systems and communities during the Stone and Bronze Ages. Stonehenge, one of the world’s Seven Wonders, raises questions about its purpose, construction, and creators. Numerous interpretations exist when pondering the nature of Stonehenge. Every magnificent structure owes its existence to the individuals who constructed it and devoted their time and energy to its design.
Despite the lack of evidence about the people who built Stonehenge, the complexity and mystery of the structure reveals the intelligence and sophistication of the ancient civilizations responsible for its creation. The monument provides little insight into the everyday lives, culture, surroundings, and interactions with other groups, making it challenging to determine the exact identity of its builders. However, the technology and knowledge required to construct Stonehenge surpass expectations and demonstrate the advanced expertise of these prehistoric societies.
The construction and organization of Stonehenge was a lengthy endeavor, spanning roughly one thousand years (from 2800 BC to 1500 BC*), and it required the collaboration of multiple distinct groups. Gaining insight into the origins of these groups is critical to comprehending their role in this process. The initial inhabitants associated with the builders of Stonehenge arrived in England following the melting of the ice barrier between Britain and France, around 10,000 BC. Subsequently, numerous additional groups migrated from the mainland and exerted a significant influence on the preexisting population.
The Windmill Hill people were the initial contributors to the construction of Stonehenge. They were semi-nomadic farmers who primarily raised cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs. Additionally, they cultivated wheat. These individuals arrived in England during the late Neolithic period (or New Stone Age, 4300-2200 BC).
Not only were they farmers, but they also engaged in hunting, mining flint, manufacturing and trading axes, almost displaying an industrious nature. The Windmill Hill people possessed a notable faith system that held a deep reverence for their deceased and ancestors. They constructed remarkable communal burial sites known as long barrows, elaborate mounds of soil stretching up to 300 feet. These graves contained abundant treasures like food, tools, and pottery that were interred alongside the deceased.
The Beaker people, who were known for burying beaker-like pottery with their dead, were the next group to contribute to Stonehenge. Unlike previous groups, they did not practice collective burials, but instead opted for single or double burials accompanied by more weapons such as daggers and axes. These single burials took the form of round barrows. The Beaker people were highly organized, active, and powerful, and likely had a more territorial nature. They engaged in commerce with other cultures, and their graves suggest the existence of an aristocracy within their society. The final major group to invest time in the construction of Stonehenge was the Wessex culture group.
During the 1400 BC era, Salisbury plain became home to a group of people who played a significant role in constructing the renowned Stonehenge stone circles. These individuals exhibited a high level of organization and likely possessed a less aggressive nature compared to their predecessors, instead focusing on artistic pursuits, peace, and trade. Notably, the graves of the chieftains, who were the sole members of society preserved for the afterlife, contained valuable items like daggers, bows, and various ornaments. One possible explanation for their possession of such treasures is their involvement in extensive international trading activities with individuals hailing from the Mediterranean Sea region.
The people of the era built the final phase of Stonehenge, potentially leading to significant cultural changes. These changes included enhancing the monument’s visual grandeur and improving its astronomical accuracy. To comprehend the intricate construction of Stonehenge, it is essential to consider both the building process and the surrounding environment. During the time of Stonehenge’s creation, the landscape on Salisbury Plain featured more open space, with extensive farmland and grazing areas but fewer trees. Beneath the initial layers of soil on Salisbury Plain, a considerable thickness of dense chalk existed, facilitating the construction of basic structures for the people of that time.
Stonehenge was built in multiple phases. The first phase, known as Stonehenge I, was constructed by the Windmill Hill people around 2950 to 2900 BC. This phase consisted of a circular bank of dirt, originally 6 feet tall but now only 2 feet tall, with a ditch running alongside. There are two entrances created by breaks in the ditch and bank. Inside the earth bank, there are 56 Aubrey Holes, which were named after their discoverer, John Aubrey. Following Stonehenge I, the second phase involved the creation of a wooden monument that was slightly more detailed.
The postholes found on the floor of the monument provide evidence for the first stage. There appears to have been a roughly corridor-shaped structure at the southern entrance and a more detailed setting at the northeastern entrance. The Avenue, consisting of two long, straight, and parallel ditches, was also believed to be part of this second phase. The credit for Stonehenge II can be given to the Beaker people, who existed between 2800 and 2300 BC. The third and most impressive stage of the monument is that of the stone structure. This phase, which lasted from 2500 to 1600 BC, was the longest and most complex out of the three and was divided into six subphases.
The sequence began with the arrival of the bluestones, the first and smaller type of stone used in Stonehenge III. Then came the sarsen stones, which were larger and bulkier. This was followed by a possible arrangement of the bluestones. Next, the stones were erected to their final settings, with a bit of rearranging. Finally, small holes known as X and Y holes were dug around the outer edges of the stone circles. The builders of Stonehenge III were the people of the Wessex Culture, most likely in alliance with other groups. Given the complexity of the monument, it is understandable that it took many hours, patience, and persistence to complete the construction.
It is likely that the bluestones, which came from the Prescelly Mountains, had to be transported a distance of 200 to 250 miles to reach the Stonehenge site. Most likely, they were transported by waterways for most of the journey due to safety, speed, and feasibility reasons. One possible route involved dragging the stones to the closest coastal area near the Prescelly Mountains, then along the Bristol Channel coast, into the river systems of England, up the Stonehenge Avenue, and finally towards the monument. The simplest method for overland transportation would be to use a team of men to pull the stones on rollers.
Although the transport methods for the sarsen stones were similar, their source location was much closer. The sarsen stone came from the Marlborough Downs, which is only about 20 miles north of Stonehenge. Fortunately, there was a clear land path available for carrying these stones, minimizing the need for water transport. However, each sarsen stone weighed about 30 tons, making the task of hauling them over 20 miles of hills quite challenging. It would have required approximately 1,000 men and 7 years to complete this daunting feat. The construction process involved placing the sarsen stones into large holes in the ground and connecting them to their lintels using a mortise-and-tenon joint. In addition, the lintels in the outer circle were joined to each other with a tongue-and-groove joint. The successful completion of such a monumental task required significant organizational skills to coordinate such a large number of men for the physical labor involved in constructing this structure.
The level of effort exerted in constructing this monument is unparalleled by anything that would be undertaken in modern times. After all the construction, refining, and arrangement were completed, an extraordinary structure emerged. Within the ditch and bank, there is an outer circle consisting of 30 sarsen stones. Each of these stones stands at an average height of 13 feet 6 inches and is connected to the stone on either side by a lintel stone. There exists a smaller circle of bluestones just inside the outer sarsen circle. Typically not exceeding a height of 6 feet, these bluestones are positioned within the larger circle. Inside the bluestone circle rests the trilithon horseshoe formation, where pairs of sarsens stand together with a lintel stone placed across their tops encompassing a horseshoe shape. The open end of this horseshoe faces the northeast.
In the trilithon horseshoe, there is a bluestone horseshoe. Within the bluestone horseshoe, closer to the center, is the altar stone, although its purpose may not have been for that. Just south of the center line of the avenue entrance stands the heel stone, with the slaughter stone not too far away, lying on the ground in the circular bank’s break. Inside the earth bank, there are four station stones- one pointing north, one pointing south, and two that form a line perpendicular to the avenue’s axis. The sarsen stones’ faces were shaped and dressed, with a convex shape mostly given to enhance the grandeur one experiences when looking up at the monuments.
There are numerous speculations about the purpose of Stonehenge, considering the limited evidence available. These include theories about it being a temple, a burial site, and most notably, a solar/lunar observatory. These conjectures are widely accepted.
The Avenues of Stonehenge lead to its main entrance, which is situated towards the entire stone monument. This entrance directly faces the sunrise on the summer solstice. If you stand in the center of the monument on the longest day of the year, you can observe the sun rising over the heel stone. This particular alignment draws attention to the sunrise on this significant day. Additionally, the original four station stones placed around the circle create numerous alignments that point to the rise and set positions of the sun and moon during the winter and summer solstices.
It is worth mentioning that the sun and moon solstice rise and set points can only form a perfect rectangle at the latitude where Stonehenge is located. If Stonehenge were a few miles north or south, the combination would have to be a parallelogram. Apart from the alignments of the station stones, each trilithon in the central horseshoe has specific alignments as well. There are two trilithons for sunset, one for sunrise, and two for lunar alignments.
The builders and planners of Stonehenge demonstrated both a deep reverence for the celestial bodies and a profound understanding of geometry and science, as evidenced by their ability to accurately determine angle measurements and proportions. Moreover, the Aubrey Holes within Stonehenge served as a sophisticated system for predicting eclipses. With 56 Aubrey Holes aligning with three cycles of the moon’s orbital wobble (which occurs every 18.66 years), they could be used in conjunction with different solar alignments in Stonehenge to anticipate instances when the sun and moon would converge in the sky.
Using a system involving three markers, an eclipse was predicted when all three markers were in the same position among the 56 Aubrey holes. Cremation remains of numerous individuals were discovered within areas of Stonehenge, including the Aubrey Holes and the outer ditch. Hence, it can be inferred that Stonehenge served as a main burial site during the Stone and Bronze Ages. Noteworthy is the significant concentration of cremations on the southeast side of the circle, where the moon rises at its southernmost point.
The Neolithic and Bronze ages were marked by various cultures, all of which showed a focus on death and the afterlife. They highly valued the proper burial of the deceased. In societies with limited space, it was impossible to give everyone a proper burial, suggesting a hierarchical society where certain individuals were given priority for a splendid afterlife.
Stonehenge, as a place of worship, displays great attention to detail and substance. Its celestial alignments highlight concepts and entities that transcend human existence, possibly forming the foundation of ancient regional religions. When viewed from above, the lintels encircling the outer sarsen stones create a flawless and perfectly level circle with the ground. This precision suggests that it is intended to be observed from an elevated perspective rather than from ground level.
The people of Salisbury Plain have a strong fascination with death and the afterlife, almost like a religion. It is believed that the sun and moon gods, who go through cycles of birth and death with the rising and setting of the sun and the growing dark and then bright again of the moon, could help in the rebirth of human souls in the afterlife. The builders and inhabitants of Stone Age were evidently strategic and meticulous in demonstrating their devotion to their gods. The intelligence and complexity of the Stonehenge people can also be observed in the other nearby monuments they and their neighbors constructed.
Most of the enclosures and round barrows surrounding Stonehenge were constructed as burial sites. They typically held one or two individuals along with valuable items like daggers, pottery, and occasionally gold ornaments. These prized possessions often signified high status or political authority, suggesting the presence of a hierarchical government and a set of shared beliefs among the cultures residing on Salisbury Plain.
Stonehenge exemplifies the progression and transformation of prehistoric society, transitioning from primitive existence to an advanced civilization featuring leaders, clergy, manual workers, cultivators, in addition to establishing connections with distant cultures for trade and interaction. It is incorrect to perceive the men from the Stone Age as ignorant and uncivilized savages, as evidenced by the structured societies and communities observed in Windmill Hill, the Beaker people, and Wessex during the Stone and Bronze Ages.
References
- Ancient Voices: The Secret of Stonehenge. Dir. Jean-Claude Bragard. Narrator Mark Hammil.Videocassette.
- BBC/Time Life, 1998. Cohen, I.L. The Secret of Stonehenge. Greenvale, NY: New Research Publications, Inc., 1977.
- Dimitrakopoulos, Sandra. (2000). Mystic Places: Stonehenge, Online}. Available HTTP: http://exn.ca/mysticplaces/stonehenge.cfm.
- Hawkins, Gerald S. Stonehenge Decoded. New York: Doubleday, 1965. Mackie, Euan. The Megalith Builders. Oxford: Phaidon Press Ltd., 1977.
- Niel, Fernand. The Mysteries of Stonehenge. New York: Avon Books, 1975. Service, Alastair, and Jean Bradbery.
- Megaliths and Their Mysteries. New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1979. Souden, David. Stonehenge Revealed. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1997.
