The scientific approach refers to the use of standards and procedures to demonstrate the validity of its findings by aligning with real-world events. This approach can be differentiated from others in two key ways. Firstly, any approach claiming to be scientific, regardless of its origins in natural or human science, must have empirical relevance to the world. This means that any statements, descriptions, or explanations derived from this approach can be verified in reality. Secondly, this approach requires the use of clear procedures that not only yield results but also allow other researchers to replicate them and test the outcomes using similar or different materials.
These two criteria, empirical relevance and clear procedures, are fundamental assumptions inherent in any scientific approach. According to August Comte, a positivist, the study of sociology should be based on principles and procedures similar to those used in the study of natural sciences. He argued that adopting this approach demonstrates that human behavior, much like matter’s behavior, is governed by unchanging laws of cause and effect. Thus, it can be inferred that this approach proposes that human behavior, like matter’s behavior, is observable and can be objectively measured. Just as measures such as weight, temperature, and pressure quantify matter’s behavior, methods for objectively measuring human behavior can be developed. Such measurement is crucial for explaining behavior.
According to positivism, precise measurements of temperature, weight, and other variables are essential in explaining how chemicals react to heat. This approach also applies to human behavior, as individuals are believed to respond similarly to external stimuli. Natural scientists do not focus on the meanings and purposes of matter because they are not present. When heat is applied as an external stimulus to matter, it will react. Similarly, positivism suggests that people’s behavior can be explained by their reactions to external stimuli. For example, societal demands prompt individuals to marry and have children. Society’s survival depends on this behavior, so its members simply respond accordingly. Positivism rejects any approach that investigates factors like meanings and emotions which cannot be directly observed.
For instance, reliable data can be observed and quantified when the majority of adult members of society enter into marriage and have children. However, the purposes and meanings individuals attribute to these activities, such as loneliness, love, societal expectations, or desire for offspring, are not directly observable.
Reliance on this type of data for explanation assumes that individuals understand the motives behind marriage, which can obscure the true cause of their actions. Positivists also share the belief that sociology is empirical, meaning it is grounded in observation and reasoning rather than imagination or revelation, and its findings are not speculative. Sociology is also theoretical, as it endeavors to condense intricate observations into abstract and logically connected principles that can explain causal relationships within the subject matter. Furthermore, sociology is cumulative, indicating that sociological theories are built upon one another.
New theories build upon, expand, and enhance previous ones. They can be objective and non-ethical, disregarding personal emotions and biases. According to Anthony Giddens, the notion that sociology is a natural science and should therefore simply imitate its methods and goals is erroneous. Giddens argues that human actions cannot be approached in the same deterministic manner as natural occurrences.
In his argument, he claims that sociology cannot adopt the strict cause-and-effect methodology of the natural sciences. He suggests that institutions are formed based on the unique ways in which social groups organize their lives. Unlike objects or events in the natural world, society and social facts are products of human action and must be approached differently. Human activities in social theory cannot be treated as determined solely by causes, as is done with natural events.
Many sociologists, like Durkheim, often conceptualize social systems using physical metaphors such as building walls or a body’s skeleton. Nevertheless, this perspective can be detrimental as it promotes a static and unchanging perception of societies. In truth, social systems consist of patterns of relationships that arise due to individuals actively engaging in repeated behaviors across various contexts and periods.
According to Karl Popper, scientists should start their research by formulating a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a testable statement that needs to be investigated. It should be specific and make clear predictions about what will occur in particular circumstances. By using hypotheses, scientists can predict future events. For instance, Newton’s law of gravity enables the formulation and testing of hypotheses regarding the motion of objects with a given mass in upcoming events. Popper argues that the source of a scientific theory is not significant; it does not have to solely stem from prior observations and data analysis.
According to Popper, establishing universally true laws for all time is impossible. He argues that even if a theory proves correct based on its predictions multiple times, there is always the possibility of it being proven wrong or invalidated in the future. For instance, the scientific hypothesis stating that all swans are white predicts the color of every swan. However, despite numerous confirmations, there could still be a situation where a black swan is discovered. The interactionist perspective aims to comprehend the process of interaction and assumes that actions hold significance for those participating.
Understanding action involves interpreting the meanings assigned by individuals to their activities. For instance, suppose there is a man and woman in a room, and the man is lighting a candle. Different interpretations can be given to this action. It could be that the couple needs light due to a blown fuse or power outage. Alternatively, they may be engaged in a ritual where the lit candle holds religious significance.
In order to comprehend the act, it is essential to ascertain the significance conveyed by the individuals involved. The examples mentioned above illustrate that meanings are not static entities; instead, they are influenced by the context of the exchange. Moreover, meanings are generated, evolved, adjusted, and transformed during the course of interaction. A student who joins a new class may initially perceive the situation as menacing and potentially antagonistic.
The pupil’s definition of the classroom interaction can be confirmed, modified, or changed based on their perception. If the teacher and classmates are seen as friendly and understanding, the pupil’s assessment of the situation will alter. How individuals define situations has significant consequences, as it shapes their understanding of reality and influences their actions.
Interactionists are interested in the formation of definitions related to situation and self. They point out that research indicates police are more likely to label an act as delinquent if it occurs in a low-income inner city area. Additionally, interactionists emphasize the notion of roles but argue that these roles often lack clarity and can be ambiguous or vague.
Phenomenologists argue that the lack of clarity grants actors considerable flexibility and liberty to negotiate, adapt, improvise, and demonstrate creativity. They contend that there is no objective measurement for any aspect of human behavior. Instead, humans comprehend the world by categorizing it and establishing distinctions through language. This includes distinguishing between objects, events, actions, or individuals.
In sociology, there are various perspectives on understanding and studying society. Phenomenology is one such perspective that focuses on the subjective experiences and interpretations of individuals. Phenomenologists believe that factual data cannot establish causal explanations, so they explore how events are defined as crimes and individuals are labeled as criminals.
These views differ from the scientific approach taken by other sociologists. Interactionists and phenomenologists both believe that humans do not passively react to societal influences. Instead, they actively construct their own realities and interpretations rather than conforming to societal expectations.
Humans are viewed as actively constructing their own meanings and society through interaction with each other, contrasting with the positivist belief that human behavior, like material behavior, can be measured objectively.
