The Battle of Trenton was one of the most important events of the American Revolutionary War, even though its military value was minimal. The enduring image of that campaign is of General George Washington crossing the icy Delaware River. So riveting is that image that most of the details of that time are lost to the modern American consciousness. The desperation of the American cause at that moment has largely been forgotten. The vastness and skill of the force against them is also forgotten.
A natural question arises – How did the Americans manage to win the Revolutionary War? The Battle of Trenton (1776) gives us some insight into answering that question. The American Revolutionary War was the first time a colonial territory was able to defeat a major empire and gain unconditional freedom. As unusual as that is, this war is like any other in that it came down to decision making.
Even though the Americans had fewer resources to rely on they were better at using them. They also had the advantage of being the “home team”. That is an advantage no commander should overlook when crunching troop numbers and planning attacks on hostile territories. The mistakes, good decisions and bad decisions at Trenton form a microcosm of why the British would go on to lose the war. They also provide enduring lessons for the military of today.
Background, Antagonists, Officers, Objectives
The American colonies were formed and populated for a number of reasons. Some, particularly the business interests of the South, maintained closer ties to England than others. Meanwhile the colonists were taking advantage of the wealth of resources in America to rapidly build a sophisticated society. The colonists had survived early hardships of famine, disease, and hostile Native American tribes to emerge. A vast frontier still lay to the West. American-born intellectuals increasingly shaped thought with the recent advancements in the printing press. Some stirred patriotic fervor, not for England, but against it.
The British crown wanted to continue the status quo relationship of control and taxation of the thirteen American colonies. The American colonies declared war on the British Empire in order to gain full independence and self-determination. The greatest impetus for rebellion came out of Boston. Accounts of savage British atrocities flooded the newspapers, eventually convincing all thirteen colonies to work together against the British
In terms of the Trenton campaign the British simply wanted to defend their control of the town and nearby roads and waterways. For the colonists Trenton was a stepping stone in a quest to eventually regain the vital port of New York City. The colonists knew they would not be able to hold Trenton for any length of time, but they hoped the British could be drawn out of entrenched positions, thereby leaving other areas vulnerable.
The area of operations was in the Eastern United States along the Delaware River, which borders New Jersey and Delaware. The winter weather slowed both sides. The Colonists had the additional obstacle of the icy Delaware River. Weather conditions were worsening. This slowed Washington but, at the same time, increased the element of surprise.
The British and Hessians (German mercenaries) were highly trained, professional forces having fought and won extensively in Europe and in the Americas. The British navy was particularly strong, featuring hundreds of state-of-the art warships. The defense of the colonies would be handled by Britain, so at the outset of the war the rebellious forces had no navy of their own. States and localities had militia armies not necessarily designed to fight against the British, but instead to defend local interests from Indians, possible French or Spanish attacks and to serve as a local police force. A plurality were from the Northeastern states of Massachusetts and New York. As the conflict moved South, then West slaves, southern planters and frontiersmen became involved on one side or the other. In comparison to well-bred British troops many of the Colonials had never even fired a gun, certainly not at another person.
After years of tension, the American Revolutionary War was underway in 1776. The population was still very much divided about this war. Many called “loyalists” wanted to remain within the British Empire. Some were sympathetic with the rebels’ cause but thought there was no way that the Americans would win. They had good reason to be doubtful. The British had a world class Army and Navy. The rebels had a scattered assortment of citizen militia and a few merchant ships that had been converted to warships. When marching up the East coast, Washington’s troops could not rely on assistance from the sea.
George Washington had become leader of the American forces through sheer force of personality. A surveyor and a planter he married the wealthy widow Martha Custis thereby becoming one of the richest men in America. To that time his military career had been marked by both great successes and failures. He proved to be a great inspirer of men and became an increasingly sage and creative General as the war went on.
The conflict between the two sides centered on British control of American commerce. Americans had local and state legislatures but no voice in the British House of Commons. As the British fought wars around the world increasingly oppressive duties were put on American trade in order to pay for them.
There was an increasing number of Americans who were born there and considered it their home. The concept of paying taxes to an English King thousands of miles away was increasingly odious. Several generations of Americans had grown up with an independent streak. The British still thought of them as mere subjects. As they saw it, the colonists were there to make Britain money and provide a hedge against French, Spanish and Dutch interests in the hemisphere.
When conflict broke out it did not look as if the colonists would last long. The British took control of major ports and tried to divide the colonies in half. This would isolate the south from industry in the north and cut the north of from the wealthy plantations of the south.
In the early months of the conflict the only thing that kept the Continental forces alive was a “hit and run” strategy that took advantage of natural features, the element of surprise and espionage.
The American spy network developed even faster than its army. With hundreds of spies in New York, Boston and elsewhere the American were winning the information battle. George Washington himself was innovative in this regard using information for purposes of deception.
The British Army was used to European-style, open field, line against line battles. The Americans used more oblique strategies to their benefit, but developing an overall war strategy was difficult. The Americans were simply trying to stay alive and prolong the war.
Infectious disease breakouts and a brutal winter in 1776 were decimating Washington’s troops. Washington had also been soundly defeated in New York and was forced to retreat across the Delaware River. Howe’s troops occupied the City of New York and Fort Washington, an important strategic location on the Hudson River.
Washington’s troops had only signed on for a one year tour of duty. Their pay was often delayed. They were also ill equipped and ill-disciplined. Americans were afraid to support a losing cause. They knew that reprisals for doing so would be harsh. In the face of these realities Washington’s troops marched toward Trenton, New Jersey on December 26th 1776.
Forces, Strategies, Objectives
After the victory at Bunker Hill the American forces were massed together for a public reading of the Declaration of Independence on July 9th, 1776. A head count totaled 20,275 soldiers “half of them under eighteen years old, and most cocky beyond belief” (Fast, 1999, 4). Things would change quickly for the Americans. Shortly thereafter, the British would take control of New York City and put Washington’s army on the run. Within six months it looked as if the war was all but over.
After retreating across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, Washington posted small camps along the river to protect against invasion. He knew these camps could not stop an attack unless the Americans had immediate reinforcements. Instead of attacking immediately to finish off Washington, Gen. Howe decided to wait. It would be a costly decision.
Washington’s revolutionary forces were dwindling. He had only 2,400 Americans, many with only a little training. At this stage the Continental Army was a singular unit in name only. It was composed of various state and local militias and mercenaries. Training was minimal and allegiances were local, not national, in nature. Washington’s forces would have had two additional regiments from the Pennsylvania Militia but they were unable to make the river crossing.
There were 24 artillery guns along with muskets and other personal firearms. With unstable supply lines and a lack of funding from the Continental Congress Washington’s army had suffered through an abnormally cold and harsh winter. Large chunks of ice floated in the nearby Delaware River. Icing on that river is rarely that severe. Sleet began late that evening just as the Army began the dangerous crossing. The boats were heavy laden and at a high risk of overturning.
The Hessian detachment defending Trenton was not considered elite, but still could not be taken lightly. Most were German farmers. General Rall, as a Colonel in Germany, had a reputation for training some of the best combat troops Germany had to offer. Most of the officers were Prussian elites and professional soldiers.
Many Hessians were contemptuous of the rebelling Americans. “They despised the American language of liberty as the cant of cowards, traitors and poltroons” (Fischer, 2004, 59) The British had 1,500 Hessians defending Trenton including 23 officers. The defenders could be reinforced quickly form a number of surrounding areas, including Princeton.
To and From the Front Lines
The American Revolutionary War was a struggle that required the contributions and sacrifices of everyone, whether fighting in the military or not. The correspondence between the troops and their loved ones at home provide a rich historical tapestry and insight into the minds and motivations of those who chose to fight for freedom.
Joseph Hodgkins was a minuteman from Massachusetts who made his living as a cobbler. A thirty-one year old father of seven, Hodgkins had already lost four children to childhood diseases. His wife Sarah had only recently given birth when Hodgkins was commissioned as a Lieutenant in the Continental Army.
Sarah was left with her remaining children in Massachusetts. Joseph sent home his pay whenever possible, but both were suffering hardship and making sacrifices for American freedom. Sarah wrote Joseph encouraging letters, rarely mentioning her own plight. In one letter shortly before the Trenton campaign she wrote: “I rejoice to hear you are so well as I hear you are from time to time. I feel quite concerned about you all these cool nights on account of your haveing no better habetations to live in…” (Raphael, 2001, 140).
This was written at a time when things were looking particularly bleak for the Continental Army. Nearly half of Washington’s Army had recently left because their terms of duty had expired. Letters such as this one from Sarah surely provided a lift for the remaining troops who marched resolutely toward Trenton. In its very nature war is a graphic and violent experience. Most of Washington’s troops were entirely new to it. Elisha Stevens, a Private described a battle this way:
Cannons roaring, muskets cracking, drums beating, bombs flying all around.
Men a dying, horrid groans which would grieve the hardest of hearts to see such
a doleful sight as this to see our fellow creators slain in such a manner.
(Raphael, 2001, 73).
In the early months of the war the Americans had been on the wrong side of this description many times. Now, in Trenton, they would turn the tables. Nobody one was immune to the effects of the war. American Patriot families made great sacrifices for the cause.
Even those not directly involved in the conflict were subject to the war’s effects. As Raphael puts it: “The American Revolution had a way of reaching out and grabbing the people who lived through it” (Raphael, 2001, 175). On Christmas of 1776 the Town of Trenton, New Jersey would become ground-zero for this people’s war.
Battle Sequence
Washington’s forces needed any possible advantage they could obtain against the experienced and well supplied British forces. They planned an attack for Christmas Day, 1776. Many of Washington’s soldiers also had terms of enlistment that ended on December 31, so time was of the essence. Reaching the Delaware River at nightfall, Washington’s troops faced a treacherous crossing. The river was choked by ice and a winter storm was in the area. The British and their Hessian mercenaries probably expected the Americans to be celebrating Christmas and trying to stay warm instead of mounting an attack.
It took most of the night to complete the crossing. At dawn, the General sent some of his troops up the nearby river road while he and General Nathaniel Greene took their divisions up the Pennington Road toward Trenton, New Jersey. The British and Hessians camped in Trenton had no reason to believe that the Continental Army was on their side of the river.
Washington took a northern approach that left him no way to retreat. If the Continental Army did not have the element of complete surprise, it is likely that the Town of Trenton could be defended by loyalist forces until reserves could be called up. The bulk of Washington’s Army would then be trapped.
The occupiers of Trenton were primarily Germans. German tradition is to celebrate Christmas heartily. It is very likely that Gen. Washington knew of this and factored it into his plans. The Hessians, with no imminent threat apparent, did celebrate heartily and well into the night. Most, including the commander General Rall, were still in bed when Continental troops entered the area.
The delay in crossing the Delaware had worried Washington. He writes in a letter to John Hancock: “This made me despair of surprising the town, as I well knew we could not reach it before the day was fairly broke” (Fitzpatrick, 1944). If not seen before the attack his troops might be seen retreating, and then the British could close in on all sides. The Revolution could not afford the potential loss of 2,400 troops. With no real choice Washington’s troops forged ahead.
Washington’s troops attacked Trenton from one side while the other troops he had sent down River road under Generals Mercer and Sullivan split and attacked form the other side. The Hessians tried to assemble and mount a counter attack but were scattered quickly by the Continental’s assault. An 18th century version of urban warfare erupted as the rattled but determined Gen. Rall marched a detachment of troops up Broad Street.
Washington’s troops attacked them from in between houses and from both sides of the street. Rall’s troops were divided and cut off from escape. From the British perspective the battle statistics were grim to say the least. Nine Hundred twenty Hessian defenders were taken prisoner and fifty killed. Only four Americans were wounded. Fifteen battle flags, 1,000 muskets, 6 cannon, 40 horses and 6 wagons were captured from the garrison. In addition, Washington’s troops took several musical instruments and a cache of rum.
Within a week the British were mounting an assault on the Americans who now controlled Trenton. General Cornwallis was planning a trip to England but was sent to Princeton, New Jersey instead. His’ troops moved toward Trenton on the 1st of January, 1777. Continental Army troops held Trenton but were now themselves in a trap. A much larger force of British was headed toward them. Instead of staying Washington and his troops constructed a ruse to escape, then attacked the British at Princeton. The attack on Trenton had lured enough British out of Princeton so that it was now vulnerable to attack.
It was a strategy borne of desperation yet effective none the less. Cornwallis was chasing Washington’s troops on their home turf. The military victories were minor in scope but they meant survival for the fledgling Continental Army. In the long run British overconfidence and a failure to adapt to a new type of war would cost the British the American Colonies. In the short term lean times were still ahead for the Americans but the Battle of Trenton established an important psychological foothold.
The campaign also marked the emergence of the American intelligence apparatus which would go on to play a critical role in the rest of the war. Bohrer notes this emergence: “The first clear demonstration of how much American intelligence was improving was the capture of Trenton, where Washington’s spy John Honeyman foiled the British” (2003, 138).
These were far from being professional spies. They were farmers, merchants and housewives. This, if anything, made them more effective as they blended seamlessly into the background. Washington himself contributed to espionage technology and tactics. He is credited with creating a new type of invisible ink and secret codes that made his communications unreadable to the British. He also courted double agents.
On one occasion a British spy was brought to him in front of his staff. Washington laced into the man verbally, and then excused his staff. Alone with the man Washington secretly enlisted him to spy for the Americans. The man was then taken to confinement but Washington made sure there was a key within reach and an opportunity for the man to escape.
The effectiveness of his spies in Trenton and in the following Battle of Princeton prompted Washington to put spies on the payroll, thereby developing an extended network throughout the colonies. These spies were critical both for gaining information on the British and for securing communications between the colonies and varied American forces. Communication was the lifeline for the Americans. The Continental Army was still a work in progress.
Significance
As a military maneuver the Battle of Trenton was not terribly complex. It was an extremely risky move though. Washington, feeling he had little to lose, exposed the bulk of his army to potential capture. In addition, the loss of Washington as an inspirational figure would have devastated the war effort. General Gates army would have then been exposed to the full wrath of the British. The most difficult part of the mission was getting the force intact across a nearly impassable river without being noticed.
General Washington knew his enemy. This was vital to the success of the mission. The mission was kept secret enough so that British reinforcements were out of range. Washington also knew the relish in which Germans celebrate Christmas. He knew that the German commander would be hesitant to mobilize troops that night without specific intelligence. As it turns out many of the Hessians were trying to shake off hangovers when the alert was sounded early the next morning. A few made a hasty escape but the rest were taken with only token resistance.
Trenton must be regarded as a great military victory for Washington, but not because of superior tactics or strategy. Washington found a weak point and hit it hard, then moved on before a massive counterattack could be started. This action would be termed a “raid” except for the fact that Washington had made additional plans that were based upon the Trenton action. The greatness in this victory comes from its timing, logistics under difficult circumstances, and the reaction it caused throughout America.
The Battle of Trenton was a clear decisive victory for Washington’s Continental Army. Militarily, it was a relatively small victory. The British still held the vital port cities of New York and Boston and were in position to cut off any international assistance the rebels might receive. A much larger effect was had on troop morale and public support of the war effort. The victory came at a critical time for the revolution.
Things had been looking particularly bleak that winter. The victory served as a galvanizing event for the colonies. American systems for disseminating information were as rapid and complex as any in the world. News spread faster than the British could contain it.
General Washington knew that the victory could re-establish American support for the cause. He wrote in a letter to General McDougall: “I hope that the late success at Trenton on the 26th and the consequence of it, will change the face of the matters not only there but everywhere else” (Yoder, 2003).
As the great victory at Bunker Hill faded into memory, the British re-established a sense of invincibility. It is not likely that American hopes could withstand this much longer. Trenton changed the tide, at least in the minds of many Americans. The “psychological dominance achieved by the British in the previous year was overturned” (British Battles, 2010).
The year 1776 was one of great highs and lows for Americans. The jubilance after the Declaration of Independence gave way to one tragedy after another. By December of that year troop and public morale had changed drastically. Gen. Washington still inspired a core group of patriots however. The victory they provided at Trenton came just in time to save the American cause.
For the British, Trenton hardly seemed a devastating defeat. The Hessians taken prisoner could be easily replaced and the town could be retaken almost immediately. What the British failed to realize was that Trenton would spawn a new determination in the Americans. The British would continue to rely on superior numbers and outmoded battle tactics. As a result, the Continental Army would escape one too many times, eventually turning the tables to corner Cornwallis at Yorktown.
Analysis and Conclusion
The victory at Trenton prompted the Continental Congress to start fulfilling Gen. Washington’s requests. In time the force would become better armed and trained. American gun makers developed a rifle effective at greater range than the one British line troops were using. This was particularly useful in the type of war the colonists were waging. British officers could be picked off at long range, another strategy that surprised the British. The Trenton victory also gave the Americans more time to petition the French for support. The use of their naval assets was critical in forcing the eventual British surrender at Yorktown.
These are but a few of the ramifications that can be traced all the way back to Gates failure to finish off Washington in New York in 1776. The British had a second chance had they only defended Trenton, but it was not to be. Small decisions – Huge consequences.
Instead of the element of surprise this operation might have been termed the “element of shock”. In fact, General Rall was given a warning that Washington was going to attack. He obviously did not believe it, and failed to make even the least preparations to defend against it. One could argue that the course of the war was changed by that decision. If he only forced Washington to stand and fight for a little while, Howe and Cornwallis could have arrived to crush the last of Washington’s forces.
This is a warning to the commanders of today that every piece of information must be given due consideration and every decision must take both a short-term and long-term approach. Here applies an old cliché’: the enemy is most dangerous when it is wounded. This typically applies because the opponent ceases to take them seriously, thereby weakening them and making the enemy stronger.
When Howe decided to take a break instead of finishing off Washington he opened the door for a much longer war. This mistake has been seen time and time again in warfare i.e. McClellan failed to pursue Lee at Antietam and the war continued for years. Military officers bear a lofty responsibility. Even the decisions which seem small at the time can have history-changing consequences.
Bibliography
Bohrer, Melissa Lukeman. Glory, Passion and Principle: The story of eight remarkable women at the core of the American Revolution. New York: Atria Books, 2003.
British Battles [web site]. The Battle of Trenton. 2010 Accessed 4 June 2010
< http://www.britishbattles.com/battle-trenton.htm >.
Fast Howard. The Crossing. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999.
Fischer, David Hackett. Washington’s Crossing. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Fitzpatrick, John C. [Ed]. The Writings of George Washington Vol. 6. Washington: United States Government Printing, 1944.
Raphael, Ray. A People’s History of the American Revolution: How common people shaped the fight for independence. New York: The New Press, 2001.
Yoder, Carolyn. George Washington the Writer: a treasury of letters, diaries and public documents. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press, 2003.
