INTRODUCTION:
The medicines doctors or medical practitioners give differ based on the time and the place of the medical treatment. The Chinese believe that their medicines will bring back the balance in the Yin an Yang in the human body. Medical treatments had started to be specialized during the early times because the main aim of doctors is to try to save human lives and stop the pain connected to illnesses. The following paragraphs explains how medicine evolved since the time of antiquity to the Middle ages. Medical treatments continued to improve until the 19th and 20th century. Study of Medicine has to start from Antiquity until the 20th century in order to appreciate the contribution of middle age study of medicine.
BODY:
Western Medicine in Antiquity
Mesopotamia. Middle Eastern civilizations( Porter, 1997) had flourished between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers from around 3000 B.C.. Some surviving clay tablets contained records of medical diagnoses, prognostications, and cures date from that date as far back as 700 B.C.. Among these records is one called “The Treatise of Medical Diagnoses and Prognosis” and includes around 3,000 entries on 40 tablets which is the the key document. Evidences convincingly point that these civilizations thought that diseases to have originated from the gods as punishment for violations of taboos and social mores. The period showed that the people believed in divine judgement and punishment. The medical persons then used both animal and vegetable based drugs as remedies, both as means of driving away demons and curing physical ailments.
Egypt. The earliest records that survive until today show accounts of medical practices in Ancient Egypt date around 2000 B.C., The some of the records also describe far older medical traditions. Some of the surviving medical documents from ancient Egypt include: The Edwin Smith papyrus (so named after an American Egyptologist) is believed to date from around 1600 B.C. and includes an inventory of 48 case studies of various injuries and recommended remedies. The Ebers papyrus, which is thought to date from around 1550 B.C. has records of over 80 medical conditions and including over 700 drugs and formulae (mainly herbal but also mineral and animal-based) as remedies.
Greece. The surviving written records dating from around the 500 B.C. onwards show evidence that a movement of attitudes have slowly turned away from the supernatural accounts of illness and suffering, associated with the view that they express the wrath of the gods. Hippocrates’ (c. 460-377 B.C.) recorded for posterity the text “On the Sacred Disease”. This reflects openness of Greek medicine and indicated a move towards physiological factors in medicine such as heat as the source of life, the notion and importance of digestion, the significance of breathing and also the role of blood. Hippocrates also emphasized the importance of the use of reason rather than superstition and the preferred treatment based on the observance of the patient and his experiences. The main medical theories of this time included the notions that health represents equilibrium and illness an upset, good health depends on a balance between bodily fluids (“chymoi” – in translation, humors), diagnosis requires knowledge of patient’s life style, living and working conditions and the primary effect of diet on a person’s health. It shows that the approach of the days was patient-centered with a central focus embodied in the Hippocratic oath to “do no harm”.
Rome. Even when the spread of Greek medicine reached Italy, Rome was initially dismissed the Greek doctors as both frauds and cheats. Exceptionally, a major contribution to the improvement of medical knowledge was championed by Celsus’ (c. 30 A.D.) “Artes” (The Sciences). This was probably the first encyclopaedic collection in Latin of diseases, diagnoses, and their treatments. Slowly, Greek medicine did infiltrate into Rome with the excellent influence of Galen (129 A.D. – c. 216). He was a rationalist who believed that the physician must master philosophy that includes one of its branches logic (disciplined thinking), physics (the science of nature), and ethics (reflection on human behavior). Galen was well known to be both a clinician and medical scientist. He was an expert in animal dissection (though not human dissection) and a pioneer in the development of animal, vegetable, and mineral drugs and compounds.
Greek and Roman medicine had improved over several centuries to produce a rationalist foundation for the development of medical science and practice. This period emphasized the notion that the human body has a constitution and framework that is intelligible, open to experience, and to reason, rather than a function of the whims and fancies of gods, sorcerers, and medicine men. The theory implemented then was the notion that the human body has a constitution and framework that is intelligible, open to experience, and to reason and NOT a function of the whims and fancies of gods, sorcerers, and medicine men.
Medicine in Medieval Europe
During the period of the Dark Ages, the medical improvements in Europe slowed down because it was affected by the collapse of the Roman Empire. Also, the increase in barbarian invasions and the associated threats to order and stability had slowed down the progress of medical knowledge. Medical progress again had regained its old glory around 1100 A.D. when extensive translations of Arabic and Greek medical texts were made into Latin (and later into local languages). Additional advances also occurred due to the expansion of Schools of Medicine within the Universities.
Religion and Medicine Religion started to blend with medicine where it was emphasized a Divine being has control over the earthly and the soul over the body. The people then were requiring that medical healing activities must be regulated by the Church. Also, care of the sick was a paramount religious duty. During the 1300 and 1400 period, there were extensive developments of healing shrines that were connected to religious relics and the establishment throughout Europe of hospitals that were mostly religious foundations.
Universities and Medicine. Increased development of Medical Studies within universities had taken place from 1200 onwards in places such as: Paris (1110), Bologna (1158), Oxford (1167), and Montpelier (1181). This event had led to the beginnings of extensive and prolonged study for medical qualification. Studies in surgery and surgical techniques developed as a central feature of medical training. As a consequence, dissection and the studies in Human and Animal anatomy also flourished in such areas as Bologna and Padua.
Medicine and Regulation Even though the medical had been professionalized during this Medieval period, qualified practitioners throughout Europe just a small part of the total individuals offering medical services. Other persons included barbers, pedlars, midwives, and purveyors of folk remedies. The story goes that the growth of medical guilds and professional organizations had taken place many forms and they also assumed various functions. The establishment of medical regulating bodies in Paris (1210), Florence (1236), and London (1368) were typically intended to take charge of apprenticeships and the assessment of trainees. They also supervises control of drugs and medicines and they safeguarded the interests of both practitioners and the public.
By the end of the Middle Ages (c. 1500) medicine started to become increasingly regulated and established within public institutions. The medical influences started to playing an increasing but limited part in public life such as hygiene, control of epidemics (including the Black Death plague), and the treatment of illness.
Medicine in 19th Century Europe (1800-1899)
Private Practice The increased demand for doctors encouraged self-employment through private practice. Some practitioners varied widely in status where some akin to mere tradesmen and the others had elevated themselves and became extremely successful. Harley Street (London) became a favorite destination as a prestigious address for medical consultants. The medical care at this time had been enhanced by the state’s promotion of public health and the associated appointment of doctors. The Medical Act of 1858 provided for a register of approved practitioners, leading to the establishment of the General Medical Council (G.M.C.) in Britain.
Women in Medicine Until much of the 19th century, medicine was virtually dominated by males alone. However, some women started to make great strides in the medical field from the late 19th century onwards. Female medical practitioners included Elizabeth Garrett (1836-1917), who in 1865 became the first woman to be enrolled on the Medical Register in England by the use of legal loopholes and Sophia Jex-Blake (1840-1913) who in 1874 founded the London School of Medicine for Women. An Act of Parliament enabled women to legally qualify as medical doctors In Britain in 1876.
Surgery There was also extensive improvements in surgical techniques during the nineteenth century. Much scope for practice, mainly relating to breakages and amputations had been provided by many wars during the 19th century. The development of anaesthia during this time had slowly reduced the excruciating pain and trauma of surgery. Anaesthesia had initially improved through the use of nitrous oxide in dentistry, to ether, and then finally to chloroform.
Antiseptics. Infection proved to be a major impediment to recovery even when anaesthesia had largely reduced pain,. It was Joseph Lister (1827-1912) who pioneered the use of carbolic acid to combat bacterial infection. Sad to say, the recognition of the role of bacteria was initially not considered important by all medical authorities. Later, aseptic pre-operative cleansing procedures were later included use of rubber gloves.
Nursing. The development of nursing as a profession was caused by the increasing growing number of hospitals. The hospitals needed good order and systematic procedures in caring for its patients and employees as well. Many religious institutions like the Catholic and Protestant sects had played a significant role in nurse training. Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) was the key figure in Britain for her pioneering work at Scutari during the Crimea War (1854-1856). She had extolled in nurses the virtues of efficiency and humanity in the treatment of patients. Thus, the British Nurses’ Association was founded in 1867.
Specialization. Specialization, by itself, had to follow the expansion of hospitals and fast developments in both medical knowledge and advances in surgical techniques. Specialization also had a variety of focal points such as body areas, diseases and life stages. There are many examples that are evident in the range of contemporary medical specializations that included dentistry, midwifery, obstetrics, pediatrics, and orthopedics.
Alternative Medicine in 19th Century. Advances in medical specialization with its increasing bureaucratization, status enhancement, and perceived (by some!) self-interest, had also encouraged the natural emergence of alternatives. It was the considerable reservation and mistrust that hindered the change from conventional medicine to the alternative medical remedies at that time. Many early alternative approaches had included homeopathy pioneered by Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1833) in Germany and Austria because it incorporated emphasis on “natural” remedies such as the clean air, exercise, and plant remedies. Another alternative treatment is Hydropathy (later termed hydrotherapy) which was promoted by Vincent Priessnitz (1799-1851). It had batted for the use of the healing powers of water because of water’s capacity to purge the body of poisons. Related treatments also included sweating, the use of cold baths and the immediate use of wet bandage compresses. Another medical method is “Thomsonianism”. It is an American healing strategy derived from the work of Samual A. Thomson (1769-1843) which was contemptuous of contemporary medicine. Thomsonianism favored cures based on vegetable preparations, especially plants that would induce body heat since he believed that all illnesses are associated with cold. Alternative approaches continued to cause some tensions in nineteenth century medicine because of there was some degree of skepticism in non-conventional medical methods.
Development of Western Medicine during 20th Century (1900-1999)
Medical Physics. While chemistry and the related medical sciences of pharmacology and micro-biology had cropped up as the new forces of ‘modern medicine’ towards the latter parts of the 19th Century, modern physics increased it worth as a contributor to medicine during the twentieth century(Roberts, 1999)
The journal entitled A Brief History of Chinese Medicine and its Influence,
Shows that the Chinese have mastered their own medical treatments for many diseases. The Chinese used these medical remedies to return the imbalanced yin and yan of a person. Some famous Chinese doctors like Bian Que use a set of diagnostic procedures which persist in the practice of Chinese medicine to this day. We also learn that medical practitioners were organized along the same lines as China’s meritocratic bureaucracy which was based on scholarly mastery of prescribed texts. The historical overview is far from comprehensive, and serves as illustration rather than a coherent discussion of the history of Chinese medicine’s role over time. Also, the article The passage of Chinese medicine to the west stated that efficacy of Chinese medicine has spread as far away as Japan based on documentary evidences. Again, in the article Traditional Chinese medicine: the Chinese see the body as a miniature ecosystem that needs to be balanced and maintained, the Chinese had studied the human body as a miniature ecosystem that needs to be balanced and maintained. Chinese traditional medicine was used to prevent, diagnose, and treat illness. TCM was first documented in China in 250 B.C. by Confucian scholars and is now used by millions of people around the world. According to the Chinese doctors, the energies that created the universe can all be found within the human body and control health which are called Yin and Yang representing the polar opposites in the universe–like hot and cold, dry and damp. TCM doctors see the body as a unified whole with opposing aspects every element, function, and feeling has a complementary opposite. The Chinese believe that a constant flow of qi (chee) which is the life force that flows through our bodies and the universe the is a major factor to good health because when there is too little, too much, or stagnating qi, this usually results to illness.
CONCLUSION:
The different time periods above shows us that each medical practitioner strived hard to produce better medicines and methods in order to remove the pain of an illness as well as prolong the life of a human being. The complexity of studying medicine has resulted to universities offering medical courses that makes a doctor a true specialist of his trade. Also, the Chinese have developed, tested and improved their Chinese medicines that have brought back the balance in the Yin and the Yang of the human body as well as the qi itself. The continuous improvements in the efficacy of medicines and healing methods has indeed increase the lifespan of a human being.
REFERENCES:
Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind; A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present, HarperCollins Pubs., London, 1997. ;http://www.ivy-rose.co.uk/Topics/History_of_Medicine.htm;
P.Y. Ho and F. P. Lisowski, A Brief History of Chinese Medicine and its Influence. 2nd edition. Singapore: World Scientific, 1998. 114 pages. ISBN 981-02-2717-5
;http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2601/is_0003/ai_2601000304;
Felix Klein-Franke et al., The passage of Chinese medicine to the west,
American Journal of Chinese medicine, Summer Fall, 2001 ;http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HKP/is_2001_Summer-Fall/ai_81596707;
Weber, L., Traditional Chinese medicine: the Chinese see the body as a miniature ecosystem that needs to be balanced and maintained,
Natural Health, Nov-Dec, 1998
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Kiple, K., The Burdens of Disease: Epidemics and Human Response in Western History, Journal of Social History, Summer, 2000
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