The creation of waterfalls is a result of river erosion, which occurs through hydraulic action, abrasion, and solution. Hydraulic action is the force exerted by moving water on the land, resulting in the removal of loose rock and soil from the river bed and bank. Differential erosion takes place as soft rock erodes at a faster rate than hard rock, eventually leading to the collapse of the river bank over time. Abrasion occurs when stones carried by the river wear down and deepen the river bed. Solution, on the other hand, occurs as flowing water dissolves soft rock within the river.
In the early stage of a river’s path, the erosion processes mentioned above result in the creation of waterfalls. These waterfalls occur when a layer of strong rock, such as granite, spans the width of the river’s bed. Weaker rock erodes more rapidly, thus forming a drop in the riverbed over time. The combination of hydraulic action and abrasion deepens this drop, ultimately leading to the formation of a pool at the base of the waterfall. As water splashes against the rear wall, it gradually erodes it through a process called solution. This splashback eventually forms a cave or hollow behind the waterfall. Eventually, the overhanging portion of strong rock collapses, causing the waterfall to progressively move upstream through headward erosion.
Waterfalls are created through different processes like hydraulic action, abrasion, and attrition, which can cause the formation of a steep and narrow gorge if headward erosion happens quickly. A prime example of this occurrence is the Niagara Falls gorge, which extends over 11km and can reach depths of up to 91m.
In the youthful stage of a river’s course, waterfalls are a common result of river erosion. The formation of waterfalls involves various processes including hydraulic action, abrasion, eddying, and solution. Waterfalls occur when a layer of hard rock is situated on a bed of usually soft rock in the river. Rapids are formed when the hard rock dips either downstream or upstream. As the river flows over the hard rock, its erosive power is heightened by hydraulic action, causing vertical erosion on the soft rock.
Differential erosion is when a river erodes softer rock more quickly than harder rock. This process involves abrasion, where the river uses the broken-off material to deepen and widen the vertical drop that initially formed. As the drop deepens, water velocity increases, which reinforces hydraulic action and abrasion. This, in turn, further steepens the drop. Erosion primarily takes place at the base of the waterfall, resulting in the creation of a plunge pool. The swirling motion and turbulence of eddying use sediment to enlarge the plunge pool.
Waterfalls commonly form on the upper section of a river’s level, where they undergo a gradual erosion caused by spray. This erosion leads to an undercutting effect and eventual collapse. Consequently, the height of the waterfall grows. The resulting fragmented rock is then transported downstream through several methods, including attrition via solution, suspension, saltation, and traction.
Over time, the waterfall will eventually move backwards as a result of headward erosion, transforming into a gorge. Additionally, waterfalls can form on lower stages if the river base level decreases or due to faulting, leading to river rejuvenation.
Normal faults cause a downward shift in the land, which can potentially impact the flow of rivers running through these areas. Additionally, waterfalls can be observed in glaciated regions, specifically in locations where hanging valleys form. Two renowned examples of such natural wonders are Niagara Falls and Victoria Falls.
The physical environment of Mezzogiorno consists of the Apennines mountain range, known as the backbone of Italy, which runs through the center of the region. Generally, the soils in this area are of low quality. Additionally, Mezzogiorno experiences a Mediterranean climate.
Primary Economic Activities: The Mezzogiorno is characterized as a peripheral or problem region due to various factors. Students should be able to provide explanations for the underdevelopment of agriculture in this area. It can be noted that 94% of farms are classified as small due to unfavorable soil quality, limited rainfall, and the fact that 80% of the land is either hilly or mountainous.
Secondary Economic Activities:
In the Mezzogiorno, manufacturing is not well developed due to inadequate energy supplies, communications, and markets. The government has been working to address these issues since the early 1960s, particularly through the efforts of Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, a development fund that operated until the 1980s.
Tertiary Economic Activities: The southern region of Italy known as Mezzogiorno has a Mediterranean climate that is ideal for attracting tourists. However, in order to fully capitalize on the tourism industry, the region needs to improve its transportation infrastructure and tourist facilities. Popular attractions in Mezzogiorno include Sicily, Mount Vesuvius, and Pompeii. Mezzogiorno consists of seven southern states of Italy and the neighboring island Sardinia, which are considered peripheral regions. Primary activities in these regions involve fishing, energy production, and farming. Additionally, physical factors such as relief, climate, soils, and drainage also have a significant impact.
The Mezzogiorno region faces numerous physical factors that hinder agricultural productivity. These factors encompass mountainous relief, infertile soils, and a Mediterranean climate known for its frequent droughts. Similarly, the fishing industry in this area is encountering difficulties as well. The enclosed Mediterranean sea is plagued by relatively high pollution levels, while salinity levels limit the diversity of fish species present in the waters surrounding the Mezzogiorno, such as the Adriatic Sea and Tyrrhenian Sea. The main fishing hubs can be found in Salerno and Nicastro. Ultimately, physical processes like relief, climate, and drainage have played a role in the challenges faced by both the agriculture and fishing industries in this region.
Pollution from relief causes contamination in the neighboring seas, thus polluting them. Additionally, the warm climate raises the temperature of the waters, rendering them less habitable for fish that thrive in colder waters with abundant food sources. Moreover, the implementation of EU quotas has restricted fishing activities to a minimal level, only allowing individual consumption and prohibiting it as a subsidiary industry. Historically, farming in the Mezzogiorno region has faced challenges in terms of productivity due to various physical factors encompassing mountainous terrain, infertile soils, and the prevalent Mediterranean climate that regularly triggers droughts. Consequently, agriculture experiences adverse effects from the climate.
During the summer, the region experiences drought due to warm and dry winds brought by the northeast trade winds. This drought is made worse by the sirocco winds originating from the Sahara Desert. The summer temperature reaches an average of 30 degrees Celsius, while in winter it drops to 16 degrees Celsius. The annual precipitation amounts to around 900mm, which would greatly benefit agriculture if it were evenly distributed throughout the year. However, precipitation tends to occur within a span of two to three months. Additionally, 80% of the land consists of upland relief, which presents difficulties in mechanizing agriculture due to its rugged terrain dominated by the Apennines mountains. These mountains were formed around 60 million years ago during the Alpine fold movement.
The soils in Mezzogiorno are not suitable for farming due to their extreme infertility. The drought conditions in the region make the soil loose, which makes it susceptible to erosion by wind. Primary economic activities like farming, fishing, mining, and energy have been shaped by physical processes in this region. Mezzogiorno, being a poorly developed peripheral region, has inadequate drainage because of the limestone and mountainous areas such as the Appenine mountains.
Farming in the Mezzogiorno region has its advantages and disadvantages. The Appenine mountain range covers 5% of the area and is prone to high erosion rates. The presence of limestone rock makes it difficult to cultivate crops as it absorbs all the nutrients from the soil, leading to severe depletion. Additionally, limestone contributes to frequent droughts, while increased rainfall during specific periods results in flash flooding.
Despite the challenges, wheat is grown on irrigated coastal lowlands in this area to make pasta and bread. However, transporting these crops is expensive due to the fact that many markets are located in northern parts of Italy.
To summarize, the primary economic activities in Mezzogiorno, such as farming, have been greatly affected by physical processes. These activities face multiple challenges related to the poor quality of soil and drainage problems, which are caused by limestone rocks.
Citrus fruits like oranges, lemons, and tomatoes are exclusively found in flat lowlands and coastal plains, such as the plain of Catonia. Meanwhile, grapes and olives, which are typically found in Sicily and Calabria, are the two most profitable sources. These regions primarily consist of lowlands and foothills of mountains. Olives are cultivated for the production of olive oil used in cooking, while grapes are grown for the production of wines.
Despite the fact that the soil quality is poor, there is still some pastoral farming taking place. During the 1950s, around 70% of the population was employed in latifundia farms, which were large estates owned by landlords.
Despite the high cost of irrigation, pastoral farming is generally not profitable. However, buffalo farming is an exception, as it is the source of milk used to produce the famous mozzarella cheese. Fishing is also a significant industry in the region. While it is important for many western European regions, the enclosed Mediterranean Sea has high levels of pollution that limit the variety of fish in surrounding waters, especially in the Mezzogiorno and Adriatic Sea, where plankton growth is slower compared to open waters like the Atlantic Ocean. Salerno and Nicastro, located in southern Italy, are dominant fishing areas in the region.
Fishing in this region has been influenced by several factors. One key factor is the mild weather conditions, which make it possible to transport fish throughout the year. Moreover, the western coastlines have many natural harbours that are perfect for fishing. Additionally, Mezzogiorno is known for its mining and energy production industries, which play a crucial role in the region’s physical processes. However, the availability of hydroelectric power is limited due to limestone rock permeability and occasional river dryness in the summer. To compensate, natural gas is imported through pipelines from Algeria via Sardinia.
As mentioned earlier, the Mezzogiorno region faces economic disadvantages due to its isolation from major marketing places. The fish industry also suffers in this enclosed sea with minimal plankton production. The challenging farming conditions, such as poor land (Appenine mountains) and limestone soil, hinder success in agriculture. However, citrus fruits, olives, and grapes are profitable crops in this region. Despite the difficulties in animal grazing, buffalo are still raised for their milk, which is used for making mozzarella cheese.
Please analyze the manufacturing activities in a non-Irish region which you have studied.
The Mezzogiorno, which is a peripheral socio-economic region like the west of Ireland, also known as the Land of the midday sun”, consists of seven of the most southerly states in Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia, and has 40% of Italy’s total population. In 1965, only 22% of Italy’s manufacturing was located in the Mezzogiorno, with the majority being concentrated in the north of the country. Similar to other peripheral areas, manufacturing is not well established here due to the challenges posed by the permeable limestone, which makes hydroelectric power production difficult.
The inadequate transport infrastructure in the region leads to higher transport expenses for industries. Moreover, industries face the challenge of a smaller and less proficient workforce due to the less populous nature of the region compared to the dominant northern core. Furthermore, the smaller population results in a limited domestic market, isolating residents from potential markets. To tackle these problems, Cassa per il Mezzogiorno was created as a governmental agency in the 1950s with four primary objectives:
– Objectives: To improve transportation infrastructure, increase employment opportunities, promote industrial development, and enhance social services.
- To improve the infrastructure of the Mezzogiorno region, telecommunications, motorways etc.
- The Autostrada was the motorway they built, which linked places together.
- To develop growth centres eg. Naples, Bari, Brindisi, Taranto.
- All state companies must put 40% of all new investment in the Mezzogiorno eg. FIAT factory in Naples.
To transform the Mezzogiorno into a hub for heavy industry, encompassing steel, shipbuilding, oil refining, and car manufacturing, the establishment of Taranto port took place. However, the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno failed to accomplish its goals and was terminated in 1984. Despite allocating 12 billion between 1950 and 1984 towards enhancing the economy of the Mezzogiorno region, the unemployment rate remained high at 15%, in stark contrast to North Italy where it stood at a mere 4%. Although infrastructure enhancements contributed to growth centers within the region, a significant portion of the investment did not reach other areas due to a dearth of skilled workforce and universities. The “automated factories” necessitated minimal workers and most of the profits were repatriated to companies outside the region, providing little benefit to local economies. In my viewpoint, while Cassa per il Mezzogiorno was initially a commendable initiative, it requires modernization. One of Europe’s most underdeveloped regions continues to grapple and necessitates support from entities such as the EU.
Examine the manufacturing activities in a non-Irish region that you have studied, specifically the Mezzogiorno region in Italy, which includes the southernmost states and islands of Sardinia and Sicily. This region is characterized by its underdeveloped and peripheral status, with the presence of Apennine mountains dividing southern Italy. Similar to other peripheral regions like Mezzogiorno, it holds an objective one status due to its lack of development in the manufacturing industry and the absence of infrastructure investment in roads.
The region’s low population and limited number of cities contribute to a shortage of skilled workers in the manufacturing sector. Furthermore, the lack of capital has led to a scarcity of natural resources such as hydroelectric power (HEP), resulting in the need to import energy resources from foreign regions like Sardinia. To address these limitations and promote regional development, the government established Cassa per il Mezzogiorno during the 1950s. This initiative aimed to enhance infrastructure, including telecommunications and roads like Auto Strada, as well as foster growth centers such as Naples, Bari, Brindisi, and Taranto.
State-owned companies, like Fiat, were mandated to invest 40% of their new investments into factories in Naples, in the Mezzogiorno region. The goal was to develop it into a hub for heavy industries such as steel production, shipbuilding, oil refining, and car manufacturing. Taranto port served as the transportation hub for all goods. The project, which ran from 1950 to 1984, incurred a cost exceeding 12 billion dollars. However, despite these efforts, the unemployment rate remained high and income inequality between northern and southern Italy persisted as a significant problem. While the north earned an average of $22,500 annually with only a 4.2% unemployment rate, the south earned an average of $13,028 but suffered from a staggering unemployment rate of 15%. Thus, rather than advancing progress, the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno project failed to yield any benefits and instead hindered growth.
The reason for the failure was the improvement of infrastructure, which mainly benefited localized centers. As a result, the desired trickle-down effect did not occur. Furthermore, the lack of universities led to a shortage of skilled workers for available jobs. Additionally, the automation of factories resulted in a lower number of job opportunities than necessary. Consequently, the majority of profits were returned to the bases in northern Italy, with limited benefits to the southern economy or any area within a reasonable commuting distance.
Overall, the concept of Cassa per il Mezzogiorno is commendable, but it requires adjustments and modernization to align with the contemporary society.
The underdeveloped regions in Europe that also have Objective One status should receive more help. In addition, I think the EU could offer greater assistance and involvement to ensure successful implementation.
In this article, the transportation and tourism factors that affect the Mezzogiorno’s development will be explored. The Mezzogiorno consists of the southernmost seven states of Italy, which includes the Sicily and Sardinia islands.
The area is characterized by poor infrastructure and a high percentage of older residents. The primary sector plays a crucial role in providing employment opportunities in this region.
Tourism has played a vital role in the economic development of the Mezzogiorno region, thanks to its diverse and culturally rich heritage. Influenced by civilizations like the Romans, Greeks, and Arabs, the region is home to numerous historic cities including Herculaneum and Pompeii.
Pompeii, which was famously destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, is now a highly sought-after tourist attraction due to its preservation by a pyroclastic flow and ash.
The Mezzogiorno region is known for its cultural attractions and favorable physical environment for tourism. This area is famous for its scenic coastlines, such as the Sorrento coast and its sandy beaches. Each year, over 17 million people are attracted to the region’s Mediterranean climate, which offers summer temperatures averaging 30 degrees Celsius and minimal rainfall. Food and wine are also popular among tourists, as they are more affordable compared to Northern Italy. Additionally, Sorrenti vineyard holidays are a major draw. Tourism brings many benefits to the area, including increased capital flow, higher employment rates, and more part-time job opportunities.
The downsides of tourism contain the possible eyesore caused by hotel construction, pressure on local water supplies that can’t meet demand, and increased traffic congestion and pollution. However, despite these disadvantages, the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno invested heavily in tourism. This involved the development of the autostrade motorway system to attract tourists from northern Italy and the renovation or construction of 3,000 hotels. Unfortunately, inadequate transportation connections in peripheral regions can impede investment opportunities for the tertiary sector. To tackle this problem, approximately 12 billion euros were earmarked for regeneration efforts as part of the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno.
Twenty percent of the funds were dedicated to improving transport infrastructure, specifically focusing on the Autostrade motorway. The Mezzogiorno region has faced longstanding isolation from the prosperous northern Italian market due to inadequate transportation connections and hilly landscapes. The considerable distance to markets presents a major difficulty for perishable goods. Consequently, there has been a notable trend of people leaving the Mezzogiorno for cities such as Milan and Turin, resulting in a scarcity of young workers.
The purpose of the Cassa del Mezzogiorno was to tackle these problems by constructing 30,000km of autostrada, which would include routes across the Appenine mountains. Furthermore, a rail system powered by electricity was put into place, and airports and ports were built in the area.
Taranto port and Naples airport are vital transportation hubs. However, the Cassa, a government program aimed at developing the Mezzogiorno region, was terminated in 1984 due to its inefficacy. Despite infrastructure improvements, the majority of investment has been focused on growth centers and has not provided advantages to the remaining areas of the region. In my view, revitalizing the Cassa could offer a viable solution to this problem. Presently, the Mezzogiorno still remains one of Europe’s least developed regions (objective 1 status) and necessitates aid.
The Mediterranean climate is perfect for tourism, but further investment in transport infrastructure and tourist facilities is needed to fully benefit from this industry.
There are various tourist spots in the area, such as Sicily, Mount Vesuvius, and Pompeii. Igneous rocks are classified into two categories: intrusive (plutonic) rocks and extrusive (volcanic) rocks. Granite, prevalent beneath many continents, is the most common type of intrusive rock. Basalt, found beneath many oceans, is the most common type of extrusive rock.
Granite is created by the slow cooling of magma inside the earth’s crust, forming a durable and coarse-grained rock that is highly resistant to erosion. Understanding the color, constituent minerals, and various uses of granite is essential.
The Mournes and the Dublin-Wicklow mountains are significant locations in Ireland. Basalt is created when lava is exposed on the surface and rapidly cools. This rock is fine-grained and dull-colored, known for its hardness and resistance. In certain cases, when cooled quickly, it can fracture into hexagonal columns resembling those at Giant’s Causeway. Plateaus frequently form due to basalt, such as the Antrim-Derry Plateau and India’s Deccan Plateau.
Igneous rocks are formed either when molten rock solidifies as magma beneath the surface or when it solidifies as lava during a volcanic eruption.
These tell-tale clues can be used to identify these rocks:
- Igneous rocks contain minerals randomly arranged in crystals.
- If the rock has small crystals, it means that it rapidly cooled, possibly because it was erupted into the ocean. We call it an EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS rock.
- If the rock has large crystals, it means that it slowly cooled. The molten rock solidifies deep down within the crust without ever reaching the surface via an eruption. We call it an INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS rock.
The rocks are typically durable and firm, except for renowned pumice stone, which is soft.
Basalt, the most prevalent type of igneous rock, constitutes a significant portion of the ocean floors. Its texture is smooth and velvety-black, while its hardness is notable. The formation of basalt occurs when magma emerges onto the sea-bed and rapidly solidifies upon contact with the frigid seawater, giving rise to minuscule crystals.
Pumice, a type of stone that has the unique property of floating on water, is formed when magma, which consists of carbon dioxide and water, is rapidly cooled in the air upon reaching the Earth’s surface. This rapid cooling process captures gas bubbles within the hardened lava.
If molten rock does not erupt through a volcano and instead cools beneath the surface, it undergoes a slow solidification process, resulting in the formation of granite.
The reason for granite’s speckled appearance is due to layers of rock insulating the magma, keeping it warm and allowing gradual cooling. Consequently, certain crystals have the opportunity to grow much larger in size.
Igneous rock is created from molten material or magma. Extrusive igneous rocks cool on the surface and contain obsidian, whereas intrusive igneous rocks cool internally and contain granite. Sedimentary rock is formed through chemical precipitation or lithification and typically displays layers. Clastic sedimentary rocks consist of sediment, while non-clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of minerals or remnants.
Metamorphic rock is formed through the application of heat and pressure, leading to the creation of formations like marble. Magma is found beneath the Earth’s surface, while lava is present on the surface.
There are different types of volcanoes. Composite volcanoes are violent and can be found in subduction zones. Shield volcanoes have lava that is similar to honey. Cinder cone volcanoes are smaller than composite volcanoes but still have a violent nature. Calderas form when a large volcano collapses. There are also different types of intrusions. Dikes run vertically down into the Earth’s crust. Sills run horizontally opposite to dikes. Laccoliths have a mushroom shape and are offshoots of batholiths which are large intrusions. Batholiths themselves form the main intrusions.
