Kristallnacht, which is also called the Night of Broken Glass, denotes a sequence of organized assaults on Jews in Nazi Germany and Austria that occurred on November 9-10, 1938.
The Night of Broken Glass, also known as Kristallnacht, was a violent Nazi pogrom that took place in November 1938 in Germany, Austria, and Sudetenland. This attack lasted less than 24 hours and was announced by Joseph Goebbels, the German Chief of Propaganda, with Adolf Hitler’s approval. Its goal was to punish and expel the Jewish population from Germany due to their perceived responsibility for prematurely ending World War I and causing subsequent economic hardships. During Kristallnacht (from the evening of November 9th until midday on the 10th), synagogues, shops, homes, hospitals, and cemeteries were targeted by German storm troopers, Hitler Youth members,and non-Jewish mobs. The resulting destruction resulted in over 100 Jewish fatalities and the arrest and internment of tens of thousands in concentration camps.
During the attack, Jewish homes and businesses were easily targeted due to their visible yellow Star of David marking. The largest Jewish communities under German control in Berlin and Vienna suffered the most damage, with over 8000 buildings being damaged and looted. Throughout Germany and Austria, a shocking 267 synagogues were destroyed by rioters. These acts of destruction were carried out publicly, with many synagogues burning throughout the night as local firefighters purposely ignored them to prioritize protecting German-owned buildings. Speaking out against the Kristallnacht had severe consequences for both Jews and non-Jews alike, as those who voiced opposition would face physical assault and imprisonment.
Kristallnacht, a period lasting less than 24 hours, initiated ongoing violence against the Jewish population. Approximately 100,000 Jews were arrested during this time and around 30,000 were sent to concentration camps. Sadly, these camps claimed the lives of roughly 2,000 prisoners – primarily men aged between 16 and 60. The high number of prisoners led to the expansion of concentration camps such as Dachau, Buchenwald, and Sachsenhausen. It is important to acknowledge that Kristallnacht held significant historical importance in Nazi Germany as it marked the initial large-scale imprisonment of Jews solely based on their ethnicity. This event served as a vital precursor to the Holocaust.
Kristallnacht was the culmination of a series of events under Hitler’s Nazi regime that occurred over 20 years. In 1933, Hitler became Germany’s chancellor and the Third Reich was established. Jews were seen as obstacles to Hitler’s vision of a prolonged reign. Germans blamed Jews for ending World War I prematurely in 1918 and signing the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which required Germany to accept responsibility for starting the war, disarm its military, surrender territory, and pay reparations. The Nazis believed in Aryan supremacy and racial purity and depicted Jews as an inhumane race needing expulsion.
Starting in 1933, German laws targeted Jews specifically by limiting their rights. The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 revoked Jewish citizenship and banned intermarriage between Jews and non-Jewish Germans. The Nazis also implemented a one-day boycott on businesses owned by Jews and prohibited Jewish children from attending German schools.
Following the establishment of the first concentration camp in Dachau, Germany, German Jews became targets of attacks. The aim was to pressure them into leaving the country. However, finding nations willing to accept them proved difficult, especially for older Jews who needed employment and housing for emigration. In 1934 and 1935, various establishments such as hotels, theaters, sports stadiums, and restaurants began displaying signs that read “Jews not wanted,” leading to frequent arbitrary harassment and arrests of Jews in Germany.
During the 1936 summer Olympics held in Berlin, the Nazis temporarily eased their persecution of Jews to conceal their cruel treatment from the international community. By 1938, Germany had annexed Austria and the Sudetenland region of Europe. On October 28th of that year, German authorities arrested around 17,000 Polish-born Jews who were forcibly transported by train to the border between Germany and Poland.
Since Poland also refused to accept them, they were placed in a “relocation camp” along the border without their belongings or sufficient provisions. Medical care at these camps was inadequate. Seeking revenge for his family’s mistreatment on October 31st ,1938 Herschel Grynszpan took action.Grynszpan was a Jewish resident of Paris who had been expelled from Germany after residing there since approximately 1910.In retaliation against his family’s expulsion, he took the life of a German diplomat at the German Embassy in Paris. The Nazi party viewed this assassination as significant for two reasons: firstly, it occurred on the 20th anniversary of the Jewish community’s involvement in World War I and the Treaty of Versailles signing.
Referring to this event as “the stab in the back”, Germans often connect it with the Beer Hall Putsch, a failed coup d’état by Hitler and the Nazi party against the German government in 1923. The assassination provided a perceived justification for initiating Kristallnacht, a brutal pogrom that resulted in extensive destruction. Hitler and Goebbels exploited the shooting incident in Paris to rally Germans together and encourage them to seek retribution against Jews. Consequently, numerous Jewish individuals lost their lives in concentration camps where they endured harsh mistreatment following Kristallnacht. Unlike the Holocaust, most Jews were eventually released within three months on condition of emigrating from Germany. Holding Jews responsible for the pogrom, the German government imposed a fine of one billion Reich marks (equivalent to 400 million U.S. dollars in 1938). Additionally, all insurance funds designated for aiding Jewish individuals in rebuilding their lives were confiscated by the Nazis.
After the violent event known as Kristallnacht, the German government enacted laws that targeted Jews and aimed to strip them of their assets and sources of income. Many Jewish businesses were sold at significantly lower prices to non-Jewish individuals, disregarding their true value. Education officials expelled Jewish children from German schools, while Jews lost their right to possess a driver’s license or own a car. They also faced limitations on attending theaters, cinemas, and concert halls in Germany, as well as restrictions on moving within Berlin. Those living in forbidden areas were instructed to relocate elsewhere. This significant event demonstrated the Nazi regime’s readiness to tolerate further violence against Jews since it was accepted by German citizens. The global response was one of shock and anger, leading to Germany being isolated from much of the world. Upon learning about the pogrom, the United States permanently recalled its ambassador.
During Kristallnacht, newspapers in the United States extensively covered the violence in Germany, informing the American public. However, some publications struggled to acknowledge that the Nazis were motivated by anti-Semitism. The New York Times suggested that Hitler’s true motive was financial gain and claimed that the violence aimed at generating profits through looting. Similarly, The Baltimore Sun described the pogrom as a moneymaking endeavor. Unfortunately, these condemnations of Hitler and the Nazi regime remained only verbal. Other countries and the world merely observed without taking any significant action or facilitating Jewish immigration. This allowed Nazi Germany to proceed with their larger plan – the Holocaust or “Final Solution.” As a result of this systematic extermination effort, around six million of Europe’s Jewish population and others considered inferior by Germans were killed.
Bibliography:
1. Martin Gilbert’s book Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction was published by HarperCollins in 2006, providing insights into the event.
2. Stephanie Fitzgerald’s book Kristallnacht, The Night of Broken Glass was published by Compass Point Books in 2008, offering another perspective on the subject.
3. Gerald Schwab’s book The Day the Holocaust Began: The Odyssey of Herschel Grynszpan was published by Praeger in 1990, exploring the story of Herschel Grynszpan, whose actions triggered Kristallnacht.
4. For more information, visit http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/kristallnacht.html.
5. Check out this timeline for a comprehensive overview of the Holocaust: http://fcit.usf.edu/holocaust/timeline/KMap.htm.
