The ethnic structure of Africa is extremely complicated. There are approximately 50 nations and nationalities, with about 3,000 different tribes speaking diverse languages living on the continent.
There are 107 ethnic groups in the African continent. Of the 24 nations, more than 5 million people make up 55.2% of Africa’s population. The largest ethnic groups include Egyptian Arabs, Hausa, Yoruba, Algerian Arabs, Moroccan Arabs, Igbo, Aromia and Sudanese Arabs. It should be noted that almost every ethnicity has its own language except for Arabic which is spoken by one-fifth of the African continent.
In addition to the ethnic diversity, every African country is also diverse in terms of its religious affiliations. In the countries of Tropical Africa, Muslim communities of different sects, Christians of various denominations, adherents to traditional beliefs, and Afro-Christians who combine Christianity and traditional religions all live in close proximity to each other.
Currently, Southern Africa is home to a multitude of diverse cultures and nations. Among the African nations residing in this region are the Ndebele, Xhosa, Zulu, Pedi, Venda, Sotho, San, Tsonga, Afrikaners, Tswana and Shona people. The colonization process and settlement resulted in a significant decrease in the population of Indians and Europeans across various southern African countries.
Khoisan groups are considered to be some of the oldest tribes. Today, they are culturally divided into two groups: the hunter-gatherer San (also known as Bushmen) and the pastoral Khoi (also known as Hottentots, although this term is considered outdated and sometimes rude or vulgar). (Maho 1994-97)
Over the centuries, many branches of the Khoisan nations have been absorbed or displaced by Bantu-speaking communities who were traveling south to find new lands. Specifically, the Zulu and Xhosa have taken over certain Khoisan clicks and loan words and phrases into their respective languages (Westphal 1962). Despite facing harsh desert conditions, the Khoisan adapted to their environment in areas with rainfall that was not sufficient for Bantu crops. During the colonial period, these people lived in Namibia and Botswana in Southern Africa and were subjected to mass killings by Dutch, British, and German settlers as a means of depopulation. However, they made significant contributions to the ancestry of several parts of Southern Africa’s colored population. Today, a large number of San people reside in the Kalahari Desert where they are able to preserve much of their cherished culture.
Language
Khoisan nations migrated to Southern Africa about 60,000 years ago. As a result, the Khoisan languages can be considered some of the oldest human languages.
According to Vossen (2001), click consonants (clicks) were applied in the past and continue to be used as full-fledged phonemes.
Although the Khoisan languages share some similarities in their sound systems, their grammatical systems are distinct. Due to a lack of historical data, it is challenging to determine their genetic relationship with each other and other African languages. (Köhler 1987)
Currently, the Khoisan languages are only spoken in southwestern Africa, specifically in the area surrounding the Kalahari Desert, as well as a small region in Tanzania. The Hadza and Sandawe dialects in Tanzania are also considered Khoisan, but they differ significantly from other Khoisan languages both geographically and linguistically.
As a result of centuries of contact and intermarriage with Khoisan speakers, some Bantu languages spoken in southern Africa also incorporate click sounds. However, these clicks are represented by conventional English letters.” (Reconstructing the Past)
The Bantu language, like many other modern languages, has a strong tendency towards syllable openness.
Bantu languages belong to the agglutinative and synthetic language types, characterized by numerous inflecting language features. Their phonological system is notable for its sound types. (Derek 2003)
Environment and Economy
The Bantu people were involved in hunting and gathering. Their main weapon was a small bow and thin arrows with plumage made of leaves. The sharp edges of the arrows were burnt on fire and spread with poison. The Bantu people had a deep understanding of animals’ habits, and they used various traps and snares while hunting.
It is possible that the ancestry of Southern Africa’s Khoisans were aboriginal hunters, most likely those who lived in Northern Botswana based on linguistics. It was in this location where they transitioned their economy and became cattlemen (Barnard 1992).
Their activity had a cyclical pattern. When a family kept domestic animals, they accepted themselves as Khoikhoi. However, when they lost their cattle and had to rely on food from the bush, they were seen by livestock possessors as Soaqua.
The relations between the two groups were not always peaceful. The San used to steal from the Khoikhoi’s flock. However, there were also friendly relations established when the San worked as customers for the cattlemen.
Culture
The culture of the Khoisan nations was similar to that of the Bantu culture. The Khoisans were hunters and gatherers who made their tools from stone and wood. Both the Khoisans and Bantu used bows and arrows as their primary weapons, but the arrows of Khoisan tribes were tipped with stone or bone edges. To dig roots, they used a stick with a stone hoop attached to it. These tribes did not have permanent dwellings but instead relied on temporary huts or sheds.
The Bantu tribes who settled in southern Africa were more culturally developed than the Khoisans (Westphal 1971).
They were skilled in iron treatment, capable of both treating iron and smelting it from ore.
The Bantu tribes, like the Hottentots, were primarily engaged in cattle-breeding. However, all Bantu tribes also practiced farming and discovered various plants such as African millet and oil-palm. Despite this, they cultivated their land manually without using plow cattle draught. The main farming tools used were mattocks and knives of different kinds (Westphal 1963).
Kinship and social organization are important aspects of human societies. They help to define relationships between individuals, families, and larger groups. Kinship refers to the ties that bind people together through blood or marriage, while social organization refers to the ways in which people organize themselves into groups based on common interests or goals.
Cruelty and injustice are intricately linked to patriarchy and its dominant structure. Patriarchal cultural structures are prevalent in many societies, but they are not inevitable. Pre-patriarchal communities, such as the Khoisan of Southern Africa, offer examples of harmonious, gender-egalitarian, non-violent ways of life that can inspire alternative patterns to cruelty and injustice.
The kinship system of the Khoisans used to be and still is bilateral. This means that kindred terms can apply to persons who are not related to the speaker.
It is apparent that the social order of the Khoisan tribes can be considered as one of the earliest stages of primitive communal order.
Southern Bantu tribes had a widely spread paternal kin. The social order of Bantu tribes is characterized by its loose structure: separate communities were weakly tied to each other. Each community was a rather small group of families, with men predominantly being genetic relatives. Wives used to come from other communities and typically maintained contact with their native communities throughout their lives. Widows were entitled to return to their parents’ community with their young children.
A family usually consisted (as is still the case today) of a husband, one or sometimes several wives, and their unmarried children. Typically, a family occupied a separate hut with its own fireplace.
The Khoisan country settlement was quite large, often consisting of more than one hundred people. The primary housing system was a round shack, known as a matjioeshuis. The structure was made of green branches that were planted into the ground and connected together, with mats made of reed serving as the covering. When the area became exhausted, the structure could be left without coverage and re-established in a new place. Sometimes, the mats were simply taken off and rolled up. Tribes would leave the frameworks behind when they knew they would be returning to that location again.
During favorable and warm weather conditions, it was rather cool inside the hut due to cracks between the reeds allowing air to circulate. In winter months, animals’ skins were used to line the interior for additional insulation from harsh elements.
Each settlement camp consisted of individuals from the same tribe, forming a community of male descendants from a certain forefather, along with their women and children. Some settlements also included individuals from other tribes, as well as dependents and servants.
Every village was ruled by a headman, an inherited position given to the eldest son of the forefather for each generation. The headmen were responsible for resolving community issues, such as deciding where to settle and when to move. They also acted as conciliators or judges in criminal or civic debates.
Religion
The Khoisans attributed special meaning and essence to the moon. The periods when the moon was new and full were considered significant for rituals to call for rain and dancing. The moon was seen as a physical manifestation of a greater being connected with the sky, earth, and especially rain – which was of principal importance to nations in dry places whose lives depended on it.
Among the Nama, two outstanding figures were worshiped in their myths. The first was Tsui-goab, a divinity who was accepted as the main forefather of the Khoisans. He was a founder, a health protector, a source of success and well-being, and first and foremost he was a ruler of rain and connected phenomena such as clouds and thunder.
According to Uba (1982), Gaunab is primarily an evil being who causes sickness or death. Another major figure in the mythology is Haitsi-aibib, a folk hero and magician of great repute who had the ability to change his form. Despite dying many times in different places, Haitsi-aibib could come back to life, often in a different form.
Haitsi-aibib’s graves are widely spread, and it was considered good fortune for those who passed by to add stones piles or lay branches or skins down.
The Bantu tribes had their own secret societies, where they conducted ceremonies that involved ritual dances and the use of totem masks as a form of worship.
According to one of the myths, the ruler was gifted with divine power and had to maintain balance between opposite states – drought and dampness. Nowadays, Bantu tribes in Southern Africa have a God named Modimo. However, this great spirit” does not play a significant role in their lives and is not prayed to by people. Modimo is not considered the creator of the world but rather corresponds to destiny.
Marriage Patterns
The core of the Khoisan social system was the common family, consisting of a man (husband), woman (wife), and their children. Due to a lack of historical data, it is difficult to speak about the rights and duties of wives and husbands in Khoisan families.
The Bantu family used to be patriarchal, with the eldest male representative being highly respected. After marriage, the couple usually lived with the husband’s relatives. This system has been retained to this day. A wife keeps her father’s name after getting married, but their children take their father’s name. Nevertheless, Bantu tribes have preserved much of their old culture. Female kinship communities are very important and play a great role in keeping the household running smoothly, working in farming and maintaining a positive atmosphere for the family.
Nowadays, Bantu tribes practice polygamy, but most of them prefer a traditional model for their families. Both the mother and father have their distinctive duties.
African tribes and foreigners.
In 1655, Dutch Commander Jan van Riebeeck decided to colonize the area surrounding Table Bay. Two years later, nine workers of the Dutch East India Company were granted freedom and chose to settle down as farmers. By 1700, the population of farmers had grown to approximately 1,350 and settlers continued to arrive in Cape Town from various European countries including the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavia and France.
European women lived in the colonies and were involved in farming. They also resided in towns and took part in trades, such as hotel-keeping and concoction. Wealthy colonial women managed households and entered into marriages of convenience within the economic hierarchy.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, South African nations and Europeans lived in close proximity and interacted frequently for social and economic purposes. This interaction resulted in a mixed culture that still exists today.
South Africa is located in the southern part of the African continent. It is also known as the Land of the Blacks”. However, despite this name, there are many white people living in South Africa alongside black communities. The country is home to many different nations, which are divided into four main racial categories due to its history: Aboriginal Africans or Black nations, Europeans or White nations, Asians or Indians and Coloreds.
References
Maho J.F. Khoesaan language and ethnic names. Compiled by Jouni Maho, 1994-97.
Barnard A. Hunters and herders of southern Africa. Cambridge studies in social and cultural anthropology, vol. 85. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 1992.
Köhler Oswin R. A. Khoisan languages. In: Encyclopaedia brittanica, vol. 22. 1987.
Westphal, Ernst O. J. On classifying Bushman and Hottentot languages. In: African language studies, vol. 3. 1962.
Westphal, Ernst O. J. The linguistic prehistory of southern Africa: Bush, Kwadi, Hottentot and Bantu linguistic relationships. In: Africa, vol. 33. 1963.
Westphal, Ernst O. J. The Click languages of southern and eastern Africa. In: Current trends in linguistics, vol. 7: linguistics in sub-Saharan Africa. Edited by Thomas A. Sebeok. Mouton. The Hague ; Paris. 1971.
Reconstructing the Past – The Khoikhoi Web page. http://khoisan.org/social.htm
Vossen R. The Khoesan languages. Curzon Press. Richmond (UK). 2001.
Derek Nurse; Gérard Philippson. The Bantu Languages. Volume 1. Part 3 July 2003.
10. Uba C.N. “Divinities and Ancestors in Igbo Traditional Religion,” in Africa, 1982.
