The ancient Romans had similar eating habits to today’s generations, but they did not eat three hearty meals a day. Ientaculum and prandium were appetizers that filled their stomachs until the large cena, the main meal they eagerly anticipated since awakening. They used names for their meals that are similar to ours – breakfast (ientaculum), lunch (prandium), and dinner (cena). Breakfast, ientaculum, typically occurred around nine o’clock and consisted of a few pieces of bread sprinkled with salt or dipped in wine, along with some raisins, olives, and a small amount of cheese. The poorest Romans mainly consumed wheat that was either crushed into porridge or ground into flour for bread.
The midday meal, known as lunch or prandium, typically consisted of a slice of bread served with cold meat, vegetables, and fruit. It was commonly enjoyed with a glass of wine. Both ientaculum and prandium were brief meals that did not require setting the table or washing one’s hands. The main and most substantial meal of the day was cena, which took place in the evening. Dinner time was generally consistent among Romans, as artificial light was not readily available.
In both winter and summer, dinner was served after the bath at the end of the eighth hour. The meal consisted mostly of cold foods, including breads, salads, olives, cheeses, and leftover meats from the previous night’s dinner. Occasionally, there would be hot dishes like ham and pigs’ heads. Wealthy Romans sometimes enjoyed up to seven courses. For instance, Trimalchio, a wealthy Roman, would have a bronze donkey as a centerpiece with appetizer dishes such as olives and stuffed dormice rolled in honey and poppy seed. In addition, hot sausages were placed on a silver grill next to pomegranate and damson seeds.
The guests were preoccupied with the hors d’oeuvres when a tray would arrive, carrying a basket that housed a wooden hen stretching her wings. Inside the straw, there were Peahen eggs being distributed. Within each egg, there was a plump becafico wrapped in seasoned egg yolk. Additionally, there were plates displaying the twelve signs of the Zodiac, with matching food depicting each symbol: ram, bull, crab, figs, lion, and so on.
Some hosts would roast an entire pig and amuse their guests by having expert swordsmen carve the pig in a theatrical manner. Following the meal, guests would engage in a contest of burping. It was deemed respectful to burp and pass gas after a satisfying feast. Guests would simply snap their fingers, prompting servants to quickly provide vessels for collecting urine.
In the triclinium, it was acceptable to spit on the floors. Having just finished a large dinner, it may be difficult to imagine eating more, but dessert followed. In wealthier households, dessert was served after taking a bath and then guests were led into a second dining room where wine was abundantly available. Dessert consisted of a wide variety of fruits. A popular dessert dish included a combination of poppy-seeds and honey. The majority of ordinary Romans would bake their bread in public bakeries. These loaves were typically quite flat, about two inches thick, and had notches on the top.
In ancient Rome, bread was made using three types of grains. The common people had coarse grain (panis sordidus), the higher class had panis secundus, and the rich enjoyed siligincus, which was very white and sweet. During feasts, there would be spectacular pastry castles and astonishingly delicious sweet cakes made with honey, chopped fruits, and nuts. The abundance of vegetables and fruits in Rome was remarkable. Gardens stretched for many miles, supplying the city with artichokes, asparagus, beans, beets, cucumber, lentils, melons, onions, peas, and pumpkins.
Garlic is commonly used in Roman cuisine. Italy was renowned for its abundant supply of various fruits including apples, pears, plums, grapes, and quinces that were frequently sold in markets. Different nuts like walnuts, filberts, and almonds were utilized in cooking as well as enjoyed as snacks. While peaches, apricots, cherries, and pomegranates could be found in Rome, they were not as plentiful as the aforementioned fruits.
In Rome, the demand for salad greens increased along with a desire for meat. This resulted in the emergence of butcher shops, enabling even those with limited means to obtain meats such as goat flesh that were previously disregarded by choosy eaters. However, beef did not gain popularity in Rome.
In ancient Rome, beef was rarely consumed by the general population unless it was part of a religious offering or a significant public event. Even wealthy individuals did not consider beef to be an exceptional meal. On the other hand, pork was always in high demand and enjoyed by all Romans, particularly when prepared as bacon or sausage. Poultry surpassed meat in popularity, with coops selling a variety of birds such as common fowl, ducks, and geese readily found on every street corner.
Meats such as hares, rabbits, venison, and wild boar were readily available in Rome. However, the fish dealer shops held more significance than the butcher shops. Those who were less affluent would consume salt fish or pickled fish like small sardines or larger fish pieces. In Rome, fresh fish was hard to come by, particularly eels and top-notch pike.
The fish supply is mostly imported from distant places. Some seafood is transported while still alive in small tanks. Olive oil has multiple functions – as both food and bathroom soap. It can be used as a full replacement for butter and can make stale bread edible again. Additionally, it is a key ingredient in most perfumes and ointments. Almost every Roman household has wine on hand.
Beer, other wheat and barley drinks, as well as distilled liquors, were accessible options but would not be found at Italian banquets as wine. Rome had vast vineyards. The host would invite guests to dinner parties either while bathing or through a slave messenger. Out of pride, the homeowner would invite numerous individuals to dine with them, and many respected Roman citizens would be glad to partake in a family meal. Certain hosts would invite a large number of people but only provide utensils and exquisite dishes to a chosen few.
Certain hosts would offer wine to guests according to their social standing, leaving some feeling insignificant and undervalued. The traditional size for a dinner gathering was nine people, with three couches accommodating three guests each. This allowed for smooth conversation and convenient access to the serving tables. For bigger parties, additional triclinia (couches) were necessary. Wealthy Romans would always serve cena in a designated room known as a triclinium, which had double the length compared to its width.
Prior to the arrival of the guests, the head chef was instructing his enslaved kitchen staff, while an upper slave known as a chamberlain would vocally demand cleaning tasks from lower slaves and use physical force to discipline them if they were not working quickly enough. The presence of even a small amount of dirt before a gathering was considered to be disrespectful towards one’s guests. During mealtime, Romans would recline on eating couches and rest on their left elbow. These couches were designed to accommodate three people in a reclining position.
The reclining position was considered essential for comfortable dining. Roman women would sit beside their men on the triclinia, while children sat on stools in front of their parents’ couches. Slaves, like their masters, would recline only on holidays and usually ate in a separate room. Three sloping couches were arranged around a square table, with one side left open for serving. The couches were also adorned with blankets and pillows.
The couch of honor was positioned across from the empty side of the table, referred to as lectus medius, and on this couch, the most esteemed position was on the right side, known as the consular. Following in rank was the couch to the left of the central couch, called lectus summus, and finally, the last couch on the right was called lectus imus. Guests would recline on their left elbow with their feet, which were uncovered, having been washed upon arrival. An usher, known as nomenclator, would announce the guests and guide them to their designated couch. Waiters, called ministratores, would bring in plates and bowls and place them on the table. The tables themselves were very simple in appearance.
There are no tablecloths, but there are very shiny surfaces. To stimulate the appetite, a preliminary course of gustatio was served. On silver dishes, there were eggs, crabs, salads, and mushrooms. The wine was served in silver cups with embossed designs.
Depending on the number of courses served, the dinner was accompanied by the melodious tunes of a live flute band. Additionally, a servant would carve meat from an entire boar and serve it to the guests. After each course, water was passed around for the guests to wash their hands and apply a delicate scented perfume. It was customary for guests to take a generously sized napkin and gather leftovers for future consumption. Finally, dessert arrived, and the guests were delighted with exquisite pastries, artificial oysters, dried grapes and almonds, along with a selection of fruits.
After the usual dinner, the guests would gather around the drinking bowl and share stories. It was customary for the guests to take a bath and then mix water with pure wine to dilute it. Following that, Spanish dancing girls would entertain with acrobatics, tumbling, and play performances. Additionally, the male guests had the opportunity to engage in orgies with the dancers.
Drinking serves the purpose of loosening the tongue and providing wisdom and advice. It also involves making offerings to the gods. As wine was being distributed by some servants, others were offering flowered wreaths and perfume. These scented flowers were meant to prevent drunkenness.
During the banquets, flute and harp players entertained the guests from behind a curtain, while riddles were told, lotteries held, and tricks performed. These extravagant events often lasted for eight or ten hours and were divided into acts. Roman cooks were meticulous in their preparations, going to great lengths to create visually impressive dishes. They would disguise one food as another, such as making fish out of a sow’s belly, chicken out of pork, cakes made to resemble boiled eggs, and ham shaped like doves.
The presentation and display of the food was equally significant as its taste in Roman Culture.
