The Jacobean Era refers to the time in English and Scottish history that aligns with King James VI’s (1567-1625) reign on the throne of Scotland. In 1603, he also became James I of England. The Jacobean era follows the Elizabethan Era and particularly emphasizes a style of architecture, visual arts, decorative arts, and literature that is prevalent during that time. Many people agree that a period’s literature reflects its social, political, and religious concerns.
During Queen Elizabeth’s reign, the nation experienced expansion of powers and wealth, allowing it to address its social and religious challenges. This progress was evident in the literature of the era. However, under the unstable rule of James I (1603–25), disillusionment and pessimism emerged. The 17th century was marked by significant turmoil – including revolution, regicide, restoration of the monarchy, and ultimately the triumph of Parliament, landed Protestantism, and economic interests.
The plays of the Jacobean era begin to exhibit the characteristics of the era. In this time, some of Shakespeare’s most powerful and gloomy plays come to light. Ben Jonson stands out as the prominent literary figure of King James’s reign. His diverse and dramatic works followed classical patterns and were enhanced by his uniquely English wit. Additionally, the era saw the emergence of horrifying revenge tragedies from playwrights such as John Ford, Thomas Middleton, Cyril Tourneur, and John Webster. John Webster’s ‘The Duchess of Malfi’ is regarded as one of his greatest works and is highly regarded along with ‘The White Devil’. Both plays embody the darkness and deep awareness of evil that defined the Jacobean period. This period, unlike the preceding Elizabethan era, questioned the belief that all social, political, and spiritual relationships were structured within an unchanging hierarchy. The Jacobean drama increasingly presents the idea that chaos exists beyond the order observed in Elizabethan drama.
The publication of Niccolo Machiavelli’s The Prince in 1513 led to a growing concern in English society about Machiavellianism. This book portrayed politics as a morally neutral and ruthless pursuit of power. The dissemination of these ideas contributed to a decline in trust in traditional values and created a widespread unease linked to societal chaos. People feared that without order, they would wander purposelessly through a world devoid of meaning.
The Duchess of Malfi reflects the influence of a pessimistic worldview. Jacobean drama also exhibits a shift in the portrayal of women, transitioning from idealized figures inspired by Petrarchan and courtly love influences to an examination of female power and virtue during the reign of Elizabeth I, and eventually evolving into cynical depictions of women’s failings. In response, authors and playwrights began creating more multifaceted female characters, who were as complex as their male counterparts. These characters ranged from strong-willed witches to vulnerable virgins.
The plays of Thomas Middleton demonstrate this characteristic of the era most effectively. Among his works, ‘The Revenger’s Tragedy’ especially stands out. Middleton has been praised for his ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of women, and indeed his female characters possess a psychological authenticity that is not seen in other plays of the time. The majority of Jacobean drama often incorporates sexism and misogyny, presenting women as embodying these characteristics and existing solely for the purpose of pleasing men.
The Revengers Tragedy’ depicts rampant sexism and misogyny, as the main character Vindice seeks vengeance for his murdered bride, Gloriana. Despite his deep love for Gloriana, Vindice’s overwhelming anger drives him to use her skull as a disturbing prop in his deceitful game. This act not only illustrates the macabre objectification of women in Jacobean drama but also symbolizes the division and exploitation of women for men’s ulterior motives.
It can be argued that Vindice’s pursuit of revenge appears honorable, but it cannot be ignored that he desecrates his wife’s tomb and commits a horrifying act by utilizing a part of her to carry out his retribution. This illustrates the use of the Jacobean woman in a grisly manner as Vindice sexualizes her lifeless skull and allows his fond memories of her to guide him towards a course of murder and disgust verging on necrophilia. Additionally, the portrayal of gender in this play is evident in the examination of Vindice’s character.
Vindice chooses to use poison as a means of murder, a method traditionally associated with women. This suggests that Vindice possesses certain feminine characteristics and deviates from the expected masculine behavior of challenging the duke to a duel. Instead, he resorts to deceit, similar to a betrayed woman. Furthermore, Vindice’s portrayal as a lunatic contributes to a negative representation of women. John Webster’s play ‘The Duchess of Malfi’ also addresses the issue of male dominance while presenting a more unconventional and realistic perspective on women.
By using the characters in the play, the author demonstrates the unjust treatment of women and challenges the belief that strength and pride are exclusively masculine qualities. The Duchess, specifically, is not portrayed as either a villain or a heroine. She is not simply a helpless victim of her brother’s cruelty; instead, she is a flawed but influential figure who exercises agency over her own actions. Like other women in the play, she is subjected to mistreatment and degradation by male characters. This oppression is pervasive throughout the female characters in the play, including the Cardinal’s mistress and Cariola, who is eventually murdered.
The Duchess is a strong and dominant woman, proud that she pursued Antonio instead of the other way around. The contrast in the deaths of The Duchess and Cariola also challenges stereotypes of women. Cariola fights with all her energy, biting and scratching, refusing to die. In contrast, The Duchess approaches her execution with grace and dignity.
No matter what the villains say to her, she holds her head up proudly and proclaims, “I am the Duchess of Malfi still,” and “Dispose my breath how please you, but my body/ bestow upon my women, will you?”. Thus, we see how some women of the Jacobean period end up subverting gender roles and using the conventions of masculinity to play against their male opposites. This is again evident in Shakespeare’s ‘Antony and Cleopatra’, where the character of Cleopatra in this play is seen as one bordering on masculinity.
As Cleopatra’s lover, Antony is challenging traditional gender roles by embracing a more feminine role and empowering Cleopatra’s masculine leadership. Both are defying societal expectations placed on their genders. An example of this reversal is highlighted in Act 2, Scene 5, when Cleopatra recounts a night she spent with Antony. Upon waking, she dressed him in her clothes and wore his sword. This act is significant because not only did Cleopatra wear Antony’s symbol of strength and Rome, but she also took the role of dressing him.
Cleopatra asserted her power by dressing Antony in her clothes, and in return, she wore his Philippan sword. This playful act not only showcases their affection for each other but also highlights Cleopatra’s dominance and control over Antony. Her influence over him is so strong that it leads him away from Rome and into Egypt. By adopting Antony’s masculine qualities, Cleopatra asserts her own power. Thus, an analysis of Jacobean plays reveals how the concerns of the era are reflected in the drama.
